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민은기 민족음악학회 2004 음악과 민족 Vol.28 No.-
In the history of music, the appearance of the printing technology has been considered a seminal event that profoundly reshaped musical works and activities, even though music printing had developed relatively slowly and lately than general printing because of technical complication. Music printing permitted much more people than before to access to music scores. This accessibility, in turn, provided many effects, such as the popularization and the secularization of music. Many authors have paid special attention to these effects of music printing on the dispersion accessibility of musical works and activities. However, the relationship between the printing technology and the social structure of music has not been seriously examined yet. Even though printing was not quite as instantaneous a revolution as has been usually thought, and there were also other causes obviously, it is certain that the appearance of music printing changed the structure of music society and its internal distribution of power. In addition, the quality of the printing should also he seen as a reflection of social conditions, which reflect the changing interrelationships between composer, performer, patron, publisher as well as the printer. The most apparent change of music society, caused by music print, is probably the growth of the music market, even though it was usually an intended market for some specific purchasers. Before scores had been printed, mainly their performers and patrons only purchased the manuscript, while the scores produced in great quantities were also bought by amateur musicians, music lovers and music schools. Patronage was no doubt declining as a means of subsidizing music; thus, while lavish performances of new compositions continued to take place, publication of the scores was less frequently considered necessary. Because the cost of publication itself was always enormous, works to be published were selected very carefully. With the development of printing technology, the publishers took a meditating linking role between composers and music consumers both professional and amateur; this was because it was mainly the publishers who chose the musical works they would publish before the music consumers could see them. In some cases, the popularity of the musical works influenced directly the decision to publish or not, but in other cases, it was solely in the hands of the publishers whether or not to publish. Due to their intermediate position and filtering role, they played an important part in determining public preference. In addition, music printing caused the generally accepted idea about a music composition; that is, music score is generally thought as music composition itself, rather than its performance. In the early years of music printing, performers were free to render a composition rather differently, not simply as an expression of their individual taste, but also because of the limited number of notational conventions adapted by composers. But gradually the language of music grew more complicated, and new printing techniques made it possible to keep pace with these changes. The demand for accurate copies that would ensure separate performances resembling each other came both from the composers and, to a lesser extent, their patrons. In effect, a composition became less the property of the performer and more that of its creator, as a reaction against the ambiguity inherent in scribal and early printed forms. The successful enforcement of new notational norms was made possible chiefly through the use of printing. In conclusion, there is no doubt that the invention of music printing and publishing was an important historical turning point from the era of patrons, when musicians and their works were supported and enjoyed mainly by the aristocratic patrons, to the mass era when regular citizens took active part in the musical arena. It contributed to appear professional composer, helped to create some popular music genres such as madrigal, polyphonic chanson and assisted in the growth of audience. Music printing finally fostered the modem idea of music society.
민은기 연세대학교 음악연구소 1999 음악이론포럼 Vol.6 No.-
This study examines <the gender discrimination against the female musician in the music history>. Many people had believed that women does not have musical talent pointing out the fact that all great musicians were men. The reason might not be what many people think. Musical history tells us that women musician having musical talent hardly had chance to develop and show it. Patriarchism prevailing the society had worked also in musical fields, sometimes more intensively. Patriarchal ideology and social system based on it demand that active, productive, resonable, creative, scientistic, technical characters be reserved to man. In that system, women take only passive, reproductive role. The long music history shows that female musicians had been permitted musical activities on the condition that their musical activities encourage the femininity. For example, women were totally excluded in the field of composition, which is considered as creative domain, and the situation was not different in the instrumental performance requiring high technical expertise. Women musicians were free, or encouraged to play key-board music or harps for that they had to take a female posture during the performance. Even in that case, they were allowed to play in the home, not in public. Exceptionally women vocalists were allowed to sing in public from the beginning of music history. This can be explained by the fact that they were needed for their role restricted often to a prostitute image using body to seduce men. This gender discrimination in the musical production and performance had given strong impact on musical education. In a sense, it is reproduced in a exactly similar way in the field of music education. Women had been prohibited from taking musical lesson to become a music professionals. They were only allowed to be trained by means of cultivating their general culture. Under this context, musical education was considered as symbol of wealth. The critical examination of the musical history shows clearly that the gender discrimination in music filed is not separated from the paternalistic ideology and many sex-based prohibitions on the societal level. It demonstrates also that the sexual discrimination was reproduced and strengthened in music field. The reason why there were no great female musicians, therefore, have to be searched not in the lack of musical talent of women but in the socially constructed constraints, the patriarchal system.