It is evident from his letters, essays, preface and author’s notes that Conrad had a great concern for detachment in writing. His concept of detachment, though he never gave any formal explication of it, resembles theories of aesthetic distance advo...
It is evident from his letters, essays, preface and author’s notes that Conrad had a great concern for detachment in writing. His concept of detachment, though he never gave any formal explication of it, resembles theories of aesthetic distance advocated by such critics and writers as Henry James, James Joyce, Ernst Cassier, and Edward Bullough. All agree that distance, whether it is called aesthetic distance or psychical distance or detachment, is obtained by separating an object and its affect from one’s own self by putting it out of gear with practical needs and ends. The state art aspires for cannot be reached simply by describing or reproducing the empirical world. Art, of course, is and ought to be expressive but it cannot be expressive without being formative. And the form-making process is carried out, in the case of literature, by means of composition which include language and technique.
Conrad attempted to achieve detachment by various experiments in techniques yet undeveloped in his time. Thomas Moser tells us that Conrad’s main contributions in technique are expansions in the usage of first person narration, involuted chronology and illustrative episodes. Each of these methods serves as a screen and a barrier between the reader and the action. A Conradian narrator, then, not only relates what he has witnessed and observed but also interprets it personally in such a way as to deepen the meaning of the action. Conradian involution of time sequence gives artistic evasiveness and evokes new meaning not possible to conventional time narrative. Illustrative episodes are presented as if they were purely irrelevant, leaving the reader to see the connections.
Conrad, of course, did not limit his techniques to these three. He was meticulously selective in seeking the most effective approach to each individual work, striving for a “perfect blending of form and matter.” My thesis deals with three of his major works, Nostromo, The Secret Agent, and Under Western Eyes, observing important technical devices applied in each work and evaluating their effects in relation to theme.
Norstromo describes a process by which idealized social, political, or ethical concepts become corrupt. The action is set against a double framework of natural surroundings and an old legend.
Virtually the entire first chapter is devoted to minute description of the geographical setting around the city of Sulaco. The author intended that this elaborate description should make “the spirit of Placido〔the gulf on which Sulaco is situated〕brood over the whole book.” Sulaco is isolated from the outside world and presents the image of a microcosm. All major and minor action occurs within this enclosed world and the reader is reminded of the image of brooding nature at every crucial point. Nature thus provides the first framework for the action and gives a spatially distanced view to the drama.
The legend, set forth in only three paragraphs near the opening and never mentioned again, also “broods over the whole book.” It tells of two gringos lost during a search for buried gold on the Azuera peninsula. Their spirits are said to be dwelling to this day among the rocks, still searching. This legend foreshadows the moral downfall of Charles Gould and others bound by the spell of the San Tome Mine and provides a second framework for the story. As the first is spatial, this is conceptional.
A third framework is that of language and style. Conrad uses a strictly journalistic, objective style to describe fragmented historical events and episodes disjointed out of time sequence. This arrangement confuses the reader as to the connection of separate events and evokes a strong sense of chaos and the swift flow of time. Foregoing his usual close psychological language. This temporal framework created through language and style serves as a constant reminder of the movement of overflowing rime and allows the reader to see individual dramas against the vaster canvas of history and the world.
All these frameworks function to distance the reader’s view. As counterbalance, Conrad occasionally gives vivid close-up pictures of daily life in the South American nation of Costaguana. The realism of these close-up pictures enables the reader to believe in the existence of this fictional world beyond the scope of given description.
The center of the action is the San Tome silver which symbolizes idealized concepts of material progress and of self. All the characters react to this center differently, serving as various observation posts upon the gradual corruption of Sulacan life. There are Charles Gould the idealist, Emilia Gould the realist, Martin Decoud the skeptic, Nostromo the vain romantic, and Dr. Monygham the egoist.
In spite of all these carefully contrived devices, the story as a whole leaves a certain ring of “hollowness”, because it tries to contain too many events of too great a scale and in consequence escapes the author’s control.
The Secret Agent pictures a group of people who are denied “salvation in any form”. To express and support the novel’s central theme of absurdity, Conrad employed methods that strongly suggest those used by writers of later generations.
A sense of “divorce of man and his life” is the basic absurdist concept of life (Camus). In expressing a similar vision, Conrad intentionally raises high barriers to communication between his characters, especially between Verloc and his wife, Winnie. All the characters are isolated from each other and from the outside world. To deepen the atmosphere of absurdity, realistic details are given, such as the disorderly numbering of London streets, the phantomlike aspect of the populace, and Stevie’s senseless drawings of circles. The main plot turns on an anarchist scheme to destroy the Greenwich Observatory, a scheme which is a frontal attack on rationality. Ironically the plot is carried out not by any of the anarchists but by Winnie’s mentally retarded brother Stevie, who is blown to bits in the spot. The anarchists are described as indolent, despicable, vain, and corrupt to the degree of characterization and their idea are also distorted into parodies of anarchism. Only the mentally retarded Stevie shows genuine sympathy for the poor and tries to help them. All these elements heighten the sense of absurdity.
Important events are dramatized like scenes in a play, with dialogue as their backbone. Descriptive paragraphs strongly remind one of stage directions. In the climactic last scene between Verloc and Winnie, methods similar to those of the absurdists are used. Winnie, her emotions heightening to a pitch, loses the ability to speak and move and becomes corpselike. This suggests a method often used by Harold Pinter, Samuel Beckett, and other to express the paralysis of modern life.
Absurdists often depict alienation by giving their characters the appearance of visitors. Toward the climax, both Verloc and Winnie wear overcoats and hats, deepening the sense of estrangement between them. Also noticeable in the climactic scene is the metamorphosis of Winnie, who has come to look more and more like Stevie. Such transformations are favored by absurdists to express psychological changes and transitions.
Characters in this novel have proper names but they are usually called by capitalized general nouns. Verloc is the Secret Agent△, Ossipon the Doctor, Heat the Chief Inspector, and Michaelis the Ticket-of Leave Apostle. At the end of the play Verloc turns into a mere heap of flesh and Winnie becomes the Widow of the late Mr. Verloc. Such appellations emphasize the abstract aspect of characters, giving them a puppet-like quality.
The action in the novel is violent and involves many deaths; and the situation at the end shows no sign that things will improve. The ending, with its suggestion of endless repetition of the same hopeless situation, is also characteristic of absurd drama.
Conrad, of course, wrote long before absurd drama appeared on the literary scene. But it is worth nothing that his zeal for technical experiment led him to contrive methods that anticipated theater of the absurd.
Under Western Eyes, set in Russia, forced Conrad to seek greater detachment. As explained in the Author’s Note, he was Polish by birth and his country and family suffered bitterly under Russian repression. He condemned Russia as an “abyss of mental darkness, which separates a soulless autocracy posing as the arbiter of Europe, from the benighted, starved souls of its people”. He also asserted that Poland, although annexed to Russia by force, belonged culturally to Western Europe, which to him represented a more hopeful and humane form of civilization.
Critics such as Hewitt and Howe charge that the working of Conrad’s literary imagination in this novel is crippled by his personal feeling against Russia. For example, the narrator, a professor from England, insists that all things Russian are beyond the ability of his Western mind to comprehend. Such a narrator, according to these critics, poses a serious obstacle to the view and flow of the action; and this narrator, unlike Marlow in other Conrad works, must remain an outsider till the end and neither give deeper insight to the action nor participate in the moral drama.
But Conrad uses the narrator in such a way as to enable the reader to observe events from the narrator’s outside detached viewpoint. Also, Conrad shows a great deal of sympathy of affection toward some of his Russian characters, especially Razumov, Haldin, Nathalie, and Sophia Antonovna. Evidently the author’s feeling toward them transcends his personal resentment and hatred for Russia. They are above the author’s political prejudices or persona feeling.
The central theme of Under Western Eyes is betrayal. Haldin confesses to Razumov that he has assassinated a reactionary politician, and asks Razumov to help hi escape from Russia. Razumov betrays Haldin by tipping off the government to his whereabouts and then suffers agonies of fear and guilt for the rest of the novel. In the final climactic scene Razumov confesses his crime to Nathalie, Haldin’s sister.
Razumov’s diary is ostensibly the primary source of information about the two major scenes at which the narrator is missing. Conrad, however, swiftly switches his point of view in these scenes to that of omniscient author and seems scarcely to remember the existence of the diary. Instead he probes into Razumov’s mind and psychology and dramatizes his fear and guilt. Chronologically these scenes take place when the physical presence of the narrator is impossible, but another and more important reason for the narrator’s absence, to Conrad, is that the Russianness of the situation, in which Razumov undergoes an ordeal of interrogation by his co-workers, is beyond the professor’s understanding. Also, the omniscient view is indispensable for the psychological study of Razumov. The other two major scenes, in which Razumov confronts Nathalie and confesses his betrayal of Haldin, are witnessed and related by the professor. These scenes involve human, not political matters, and the narrator is able to present Razumov’s problem in the light of experience common to all mankind.
The variation of viewpoints in the novel subtly shades our understanding of Razumov’s dilemma. The effect is heightened still more by suspense. The reader, unaware of the facts of Razumov’s action but in touch with his psychological state, is made to realize the true nature of his ordeal. Razumov betraying others “betrayed himself most basely”.
Under Western Eyes, though simpler in structure than Conrad’s other works, is successful in the sense that the technical devices function to illuminate rather than obscure the subtle meanings of the theme.
Aesthetic distance or detachment is not the only criterion for evaluation of literary works. A work of art is an organic being with its own independent life. Mechanical dissection and analysis always entail the risk of downgrading the vitality of the work as a whole, concentrating only on parts. But I claim justification for my approach in that the analysis, though it stresses technique, is made in view of the ways in which that technique supports the central theme and vitalizes the organic effect of the whole.