朝鮮時代 使行을 통해 본 韓·中·日 音樂文化

국문 초록 (Abstract)

한민족의 역사에서 음악문화가 국경을 넘어 인접국가로 전파되는 경로 중에 가장 강력한 형태는 국가 간의 공식외교에 따른 교류였다. 使行은 전통사회에서 공식외교 활동의 핵심으로, 이국의 음악문화를 접하거나 양국의 음악이 교류할 수 있는 현장이라는 점에서 중요하게 고려해야할 요소이다. 삼국시대부터 고려에 이르기까지 해외에서 음악활동을 하거나 외래 음악을 수용할 때 사신 왕래는 중요한 요소로 작용하였다.

조선시대에도 중국 및 일본과 지속적인 외교관계를 유지하며 사행을 통해 국가 간에 음악문화를 교류하였다. 그러나 현재 이러한 정황이 학문적으로 조명된 연구 성과가 매우 미흡한 실정이기 때문에 사행을 통해 조선시대의 음악문화를 입체적으로 검토해야 할 필요성이 제기되고 있다. 본 연구는 이러한 문제의식에서 출발하여 조선사절단이 사행을 통해 접한 중국과 일본의 음악문화가 무엇이었으며 그것들을 어떻게 인식하였는지 살펴보았다.

제Ⅱ장에서는 對中 사행에 나타난 음악문화를 검토하였다. 조선사절단의 對中 使行 노정은 지방 노정과 중국 노정으로 나눠졌다. 사절단이 관서지방을 지나면서 접하였던 다양한 공연 문화를 시기별로 검토하였고, 이 과정에서 使行의 일면을 모티브로 삼거나 형상화한 작품이 당대의 공연문화로 창작·향유된 사실을 확인하였고 조선 후기의 對中 사행이 특히 관서지방의 음악문화에 상당한 영향을 끼쳤다고 제시해 보았다. 중국 노정에서 경험한 음악문화는 중국 측의 공식 사신연과 궁정의식, 민간의 세 층위로 구분하여 점검하였다. 중국에서의 음악적 경험은 館所 출입이 비교적 완화되었던 청대에 훨씬 풍부한 양상을 보였는데, 중국뿐만 아니라 서구인까지 접촉하면서 세계에 대한 인식의 폭이 넓어지고 음악 경험도 다양해지는 모습을 확인하였다. 마지막으로 對中 사행에 나타난 음악문화의 교류와 실천에 대해서도 살펴보았다. 조선은 중국에서 악기를 들여오거나 음악을 배우기도 하였는데, 명나라와는 공식적인 절차인 반면, 청나라와는 비공식적인 절차로 악기나 음악을 들여오는 양상을 볼 수 있었다. 조선이 明․·淸 두 나라와 사대관계를 맺었다는 조건은 동일하였다. 그런데도 음악문화의 전파 경로가 달라진 까닭은 조선 지식인들이 淸나라를 오랑캐로 인식하는 華夷論에서 비롯되었다고 결론지었다.

제Ⅲ장에서는 對日 사행에 나타난 음악문화를 살펴보았다. 일본으로 향하는 조선사절단은 국내 노정에서 영남지방의 妓樂을 접할 수 있었는데, <검무>와는 별도로 신라에서 유래한 <황창랑무>가 경주기생의 주요 공연 종목으로 연행되었고, <대풍류>라는 곡명이 춤이름으로 혼용되는 양상을 확인하였다. 일본에서 경험한 음악문화는 공식적인 연향과 비공식적인 자리로 구분하여 살펴보았다. 조선사절단이 사루가쿠[猿樂]를 비롯하여 막부의 시키가쿠[式樂]였던 노[能]와 교겐[狂言], 그리고 가부키[歌舞伎]나 분라쿠[文樂]에 이르기까지 당시 幕府의 후원과 대중의 인기를 얻었던 작품들을 두루 접하였다는 사실을 확인하였다. 1711년의 통신사행에서는 이례적으로 江戶에서 일본 雅樂을 구경하였는데, 권력 지형을 바꿔보려는 일본의 의도가 사신을 위한 공연내용에 어떻게 반영되었는지 확인할 수 있는 사례로 제시해 보았다.

대일 사행에서 가장 두드러진 음악 교류로 통신사 수행악대의 활동을 검토하였다. 통신사 수행악대는 전기에 掌樂院 소속 악대와 취라치를 포함한 軍樂으로 편성되었다가 17세기 전반에 일본측이 雜藝기능자를 대동하도록 요청하면서 典樂·樂工(風樂手)·鼓吹樂手로 규모가 커졌다. 또, 男樂을 동행해 달라는 요청으로 춤을 추는 小童이 파견되면서 공연종목과 인원이 확대되었고, 공연 담당자가 아니더라도 일행 중에 재주 있는 사람들이 공연활동에 참여하는 모습을 확인하였다. 통신사 수행악대의 공연활동이나 일본의 공연 요청은 비교적 적극적으로 나타났던 반면, 조선사절단이 일본 음악문화에 대해 가졌던 관심은 미약하였고 공연문화도 부정적으로 인식하는 경향이 우세하였다. 이런 태도 역시 일본을 오랑캐로 인식하며 열등하게 보았던 華夷論을 배경으로 하고 있으나 청나라와는 성격이 다른 화이론으로 분별할 필요가 있다고 제안하였다.

조선 지식인이 이국의 음악문화를 인식하는 가장 중요한 척도는 華夷論이었다. 여기서 중요한 점은 淸과 日本에 대한 夷의 층위가 달랐다는 점이다. 조선 지식인은 일본의 음악문화를 전기부터 일관되게 夷의 관점으로 바라보았다. 반면에, 淸나라에 대해서는 18-9세기에 이르러 華夷의 잣대를 버리고 古今으로 바라보려는 시각적 변화를 드러냈다. 예악문물이 갖춰져 있는 지가 華와 夷의 기준이었는데, 淸나라는 明이 정비한 예악문물을 토대로 서구문물을 수용하고 있었기 때문에 이러한 인식의 변화가 비롯되었다. 한편, 음악이 국가 간 권력 지형의 지표가 될 수 있음을 확인하였다. 조선이 명·청시기 雅樂器를 들여오는 경로를 바꾸었고, 명·청은 宴享樂에 朝鮮國俳를 두어 사대·종속 관계를 공고히 하였으며, 일본이 조선과의 관계에서 우위를 과시하려는 수단으로 雅樂을 택하였다는 점이 이를 뒷받침한다.

다국어 초록 (Multilingual Abstract)

在韩民族的历史上音乐文化超越国境传播到邻国的途径中最强有力的形态是国家间正 式的外交交流。使行是传统社会正式外交活动的核心，是接触异国的音乐文化或者是两 国的音乐可以进行交流的现场，因此是需要考虑的要素。从三国时代到高丽，在海外 进行音乐活动，或者是接受外来音乐时，使臣往来起到了重要作用。

在朝鲜时代也是与中国及日本维持持续的外交关系的过程中，通过使行交流了国家间 的音乐文化。但现在这一领域的研究成果为数不多，因此有必要通过使行对朝鲜时代的 音乐文化进行进一步的学术检讨。本研究基于以上原因通过朝鲜使节团的使行来探讨所 接触的中国和日本的音乐文化是什么，并且进一步探讨对这些音乐文化的认识。

第Ⅱ章探讨了对中使行中出现的音乐文化。朝鲜使节团的对中使行路程可分为地方路 程和中国路程。在这一章中首先分时期探讨了使节团经过关西地方时所接触的多种公演 文化，而且确认了在这一过程中以使行为主题或者是形象化的作品演变成为当代公演文 化的事实，并且得出了朝鲜后期对中使行特别是对关西地方的音乐文化所产生的影响。在中国路程中所体验的音乐文化分中国的正式使节宴和宫廷仪式，民间三个层面进行了 探讨。在中国所体验的音乐进入馆所出入比较缓和的清代更加丰富，不仅是中国，而 且与西欧人接触的过程中拓宽了对世界的认识，也体验了多种形式的音乐。最后探讨了 对中使行中出现的音乐文化的交流和实践。朝鲜从中国引进乐器或学习音乐，与明朝是通过正式途径，而与清朝是通过非正式途径引进乐器或音乐。朝鲜与明․清两国都建
立了相同的事大关系，但音乐文化传播途径的变化是因为基于朝鲜知识人的华夷论，即 认为清是夷。

第Ⅲ章探讨了对日使行中出现的音乐文化。对日朝鲜使节团的国内路程可以接触岭南 地方的妓乐，与<剑舞>相区别，从新罗由来的<黄昌郎舞>成为庆州妓生的主要公演节 目，<竹风流>曲名被混用为舞名。在日本所体验的音乐文化可分为正式宴会和非正式 场所来考察。朝鲜使节团带来了猿乐，能和狂言以及歌舞伎，文乐等当时幕府和大众所喜欢的作品。1711年的通信使行中破例在江户观看了日本雅乐，这是可以确认日本试图改变为使臣的公演内容来扭转两国权利关系的一个例子。

对日使行中最典型的音乐交流是通信使随行乐队的活动。通信使随行乐队前期是以掌乐院所属乐队和包括吹螺赤的军乐组成，但17世纪前期随着日本邀请杂艺技能者，扩大了典乐·风乐手·鼓吹乐手的规模。另外日本邀请男乐随同，扩大了公演节目和人员，所以可以发现虽然不是公演团，但有技能的人员参与公演活动的情况。与积极的 通信使随行乐队的活动和日本的公演邀请相反，朝鲜使节团对日本音乐文化的关心微 弱，并且对公演文化持否定态度的倾向占据优势。这种态度也是基于华夷论，即认为 日本是劣等的夷，但这是与清国性质不同的华夷论。

朝鲜知识人认识异国音乐文化最重要的尺度是华夷，但重要的是对清和日本所持有的 夷的层次不同。朝鲜知识人对日本的音乐文化从前期开始一贯的以夷的观点来看待，相反对清国是至18-9世纪摒弃华夷尺度，以古今的视角来看待。华和夷是礼乐文物制度的制定和实践的基准，但清以明时的礼乐文物为基础吸收了西欧文物，所以出现了这种认识上的变化。另外，音乐可以成为国家间衡量权利的指标。如朝鲜在明·清时期变更 了引进雅乐器的途径, 明·清在宴会乐中设置朝鲜国俳巩固了事大·从属关系，日本则为了显示与朝鲜关系上的优势选择了雅乐。

다국어 초록 (Multilingual Abstract)

In the Korean history, the most conspicuous form, with which its music culture crossed borders between Korea and its neighboring countries and was spread into them, was the interchanges by the diplomacy between the nations. The envoy visits were essential to such diplomatic activities in traditional society, for it was what made it possible for music of the three countries to be exchanged. That is why it needs be considered as significant. From the era of the Three States up to that of the Goryeo Dynasty, the comings and goings of the envoys among the three countries played the significant role in spreading the Korean traditional music and receiving foreign music.

In the period of the Joseon Dynasty, Korea kept a constant diplomatic relationship with China and Japan by exchanging its music with others’ through the comings and goings of envoys. Since at present there are few studies on this matter, however, it is necessary that the music culture in the period of the Joseon Dynasty needs be examined from many angles, especially from a perspective of the comings and goings of envoys between the countries. This study, caused by such a critical point, will delve into what music of China and Japan was exchanged by that of Korea through the activities of the Joseon delegation and how such music were recognized by the Joseon envoys.

In the second chapter, the music culture represented by the Joseon delegation to China was examined. The itinerary of the Joseon delegation to China was divided into two, the regional areas in Korea and them in China. The various performing arts the delegation met, when passing through the northern areas of Pyongan(平安) and Hwanghae(黃海) province, were studied according to the flow of time. In such a process, it was discovered that there were performing arts the motives of which were related to some facets of the delegation; it indicates that, in that time period, some performing arts concerning the delegation were created and enjoyed by people in the areas. Thus, it was suggested that the delegation in the late of Joseon Dynasty played an influential role on the music culture of the northern areas of Pyongan(平安) and Hwanghae(黃海) province.

The music the delegation experienced, when traveling in the areas of China, was examined by dividing it into three kinds, the music used in the official parties for the Joseon delegation by China, the music used in royal ceremonies, and folk music. The experiences of the delegation of the Chinese music seemed to be more abundant in the Qing Dynasty when the prohibition of access to the inns for envoys became moderated respectively. Consequently, the delegation could contact not only with Chinese but also with Westerners, and which indicates that their recognition of the world became wider and their experiences of music became diverse.

Lastly, I studied the exchanges and practices of the music cultures revealed by the delegation to China; Joseon imported musical instruments from China and learned its music.
It was considered that, in order to do so, Joseon used official procedures usually in its relation with the Ming Dynasty, whereas it made use of unofficial ways in its relation with the Qing Dynasty. There was one in common in its relation with the two dynasties: the Joseon dynasty established a master-servant relationship with them. The reason why the Joseon utilized different ways in experiencing and receiving Chinese music from the two dynasties could be conclusively understood that it was dependent on the conception called Hwairon(華夷論, Discourse on the Civilized and Barbarians) of the intellectuals of Joseon that they considered the Qing Dynasty as a barbarian nation.

In the third chapter, I examined the music culture represented in the Joseon delegation to Japan. While traveling to Japan, the Joseon delegation could confront the musical instruments of the southeastern region of Korea. Here, apart from <Geommu(劍舞)>, <Hwangchangnangmu(黃倡郞舞)> originated in the Silla Dynasty was performed as a major work by Korean gisaengs(妓生). And it was also verified that <Daepungnyu(大風流)> was used as a mix with dance music. In order to study what kind music the delegation experienced in Japan, I divided it into two, the music used in official parties and that in unofficial. In such a way, it was checked that the delegation experienced a variety of Japanese music, supported by the Shoguntae government and popularized in people, ranging from Noh(能) and Kyogen(狂言) of Sikigaku(式樂) of the government to Kabuki(歌舞 伎) and Bunraku(文樂), including Sarugaku(猿樂) a Japanese ancient musical performance. The delegation of 1711 took a chance to listen to Japanese classical court music in Edo(江戶) extraordinarily. I provided it as an example with which it is possible to take a look at how the intention of Japan to change its power relation with the Joseon dynasty was reflected on the performance for the Korean delegation.

As the most conspicuous musical exchange between Joseon and Japan, I studied the activities of musical bands in diplomatic missions. At the beginning, the musical band accompanied by the diplomatic mission was composed of a band belonging to Jangagwon(掌 樂院, a Joseon’s musical administrative office) and a military band in which a Chwirachi(吹螺赤) was included; but, in the first half of the 17th centuries, it became bigger in size because of the request of Japan to accompany a vocational technician of various art with the band. Thus, Jeonak(典樂), Pungaksu(風樂手) and Gochwiaksu(鼓吹樂手) came into being. Also, according to the request of Japan to accompany Sodongs(小童), they were dispatched so that the kind of musical performance and the number of performers increased. Additionally, it is checked that some talented people in the musical band participated into performances although they were not actual musical performers.

While the performance activities of the musical band, accompanied by the diplomatic mission, and the requests of Japan about them could be easily found out, the Joseon delegation had a small portion of interest in the Japanese music and seemed to consider its performance culture negatively in general. Such an attitude is also anchored in the same conception, Hwairon(華夷論), of the Joseon intellectuals to that in the case when they considered the music of the Qing Dynasty. But, I suggested that it be differentiated from that of the Qing Dynasty in terms of its own traits.

The nitty-gritty barometer, with which the Joseon intellectuals recognized the music of other countries, was Hwairon(華夷論). What is at stake here is the difference in degree of the Joseon’s attitudes toward considering the Qing Dynasty and Japan as a barbarian nation. The Joseon intellectuals took the Japanese music as barbarian unchangeably from the outset.
On the other hand, when it comes to the music of the Qing Dynasty, they discarded such an attitude by the 18th and 19th and made a change in looking it from the perspective of difference between the past and the present in the music. The criterion of the difference between being civilized or being uncivilized was whether or not a nation was equipped with yeak(禮樂, ritual and music); in this respect, the Qing Dynasty accepted the Western products of civilization on the basis of the ritual and music organized by the Ming Dynasty. Thus, I analyzed that this point could one of the reasons why such a change took place.

And I suggested that music could be utilized as an index of power dynamic between countries. Joseon strengthened the master-servant relationship with Ming and Qing by changing the routes through which Joseon accepted the Chinese musical instruments used for royal ceremonies. In response to that, Ming and Qing put Joseon clowns in the musical performances used in their parties for state guests. Additionally, the fact that Japan chose an ancient court ritual music so as to display its superiority over Korea also seems to support such dynamic relations between the nations.

다국어 초록 (Multilingual Abstract)

韓民族の歴史において音楽文化が国境を越えて隣接する国家に伝播する経路の中で最も目に付く形態は国家間の公式外交に基づく交流だ。使行は伝統社会にお いて公式外交活動の核心で、他国の音楽文化に接するなり、両国の音楽交流が行 われる現場という点で重視する必要がある要素だ。三国時代より高麗に至るまで海外において音楽活動を展開するなり外来音楽を受容する際、使臣の往来は重要な要素として作用した。

朝鮮時代においても中国及び日本との持続的な外交関係が維持され、使行を通じて国家間において音楽文化の交流が展開された。しかし現在このような状況に 焦点を合わせた研究成果が非常に乏しい故、使行を通じて朝鮮時代の音楽文化を立体的に検討する必要性が提起されている。本研究はこのような問題意識から出発し朝鮮使節団が使行を通じて接した中国と日本の音楽文化がどのようなもので あり、それらをどのように認識したのかを分析した。

第2章においては対中使行において現われた音楽文化を検討した。朝鮮使節団 の対中使行の路程は国境を越える前の地方路程と中国路程に分かれた。使節団が朝鮮の関西地方を通りながら接した多様な公演文化を時期別に検討し、この過程において使行の一面をモチーフとするなり形象化した作品が当時の公演文化とし て創作・享受された事実を確認し朝鮮後期の対中使行が特に朝鮮の関西地方の音 楽文化に相当な影響を与えた事実を提示した。中国路程において経験した音楽文 化は中国側の公式使行宴と宮中儀式、民間の三つの位相に区分して分析した。中国においての音楽的経験は館所の出入統制が比較的緩和された清代にはるかに豊富な様相を見せたが、中国人のみならず西欧人とも接触しながら世界に対する認 識の幅が広がり音楽に関する経験も多様化する様相を確認した。最後に対中使行においてなされた音楽文化の交流と実践に対しても分析を加えた。朝鮮人は中国から楽器を持ちこむなり音楽を学ぶなりしたが、明とは公式的な手続きだった半面、清とは非公式手続きで楽器や音楽を持ちこんできた様相を確認できた。朝 鮮が明・清と事大関係を結んだという状況は同じだった。しかし音楽文化の伝播経路が異なった理由は朝鮮知識人が清を蛮族と認識する華夷論に由来するという結論を得ることができた。第3章においては対日使行において現われた音楽文化を分析した。日本へ向か う朝鮮使節団は国内路程において嶺南地方の妓楽に接することになったのだが、 その記録を通じて「剣舞」とは別に新羅に起源を持つ「黃倡郞舞」が慶州の妓生 の主要演目として演じられ、「竹風流」という曲名が舞踊の名前として混用され ている様相を確認できた。日本において経験した音楽文化は公式行事と非公式的 な場に区別して分析した。朝鮮使節団が猿楽から幕府の式楽だった能と狂言、そ して歌舞伎や文楽に至るまで当時幕府の後援と大衆の人気を受けた作品を鑑賞し た事実を確認した。1711年の通信使行においては儀礼的に江戸において日本の雅 楽を見物したが、権力関係を変えようとした日本の意図が使臣のために準備され た公演内容にどのように反映されたのか確認できる事例として提示した。

そして、対日使行において最も目立つ音楽交流として通信使随行楽隊の活動を検討した。通信使随行楽隊は初期は掌楽院所属の楽隊と吹螺赤を含んだ軍楽で編成 されていたが、17世紀前半に日本側が雑芸技能者を連れてくることを要請し典 楽、風楽手、鼓吹樂手と規模が大きくなった。また男楽を同行させてほしいとい う要請で踊りを舞う小童が派遣され演目と人員が拡大し、公演団でなくても一行 中に音楽技能を持つ人々が公演活動に参加した様相を確認した。通信使随行楽隊 の公演活動や日本の公演要請は比較的積極的に行われた半面、朝鮮使節団は日本文 化に対して関心が乏しく、日本の公演文化を否定的に認識する傾向が強か。った このような態度は日本を蛮族と認識し劣等なものとみなす華夷論を背景としてい たものと分析した。しかし清に対するものとは性格が異なる華夷論として区別 する必要があることを提示した。

朝鮮知識人が他国の音楽文化を認識する最も重要な尺度は「華夷」だった。こ こで重要な点は清と日本に対する「夷」の位相が異なったという点だ。朝鮮人は日本の音楽文化をはじめから一貫して「夷」という観点で眺め続けた。反面、清に対しては18、19世紀に至り、「華夷」の尺度を捨て、昔・今の尺度で眺めよう とする観点的な変化を見せた。「華」と「夷」の基準は礼楽文物を制度的に準備 し実践する過程で現われたが、清は明が整備した礼楽文物を土台にして西洋文物 を受容していた故にこのような認識の変化がはじまったものと分析した。一 方、音楽が国家間の権力関係の指標になり得るということを提示した。朝鮮が 明・清代、雅楽器を持ちこむ経路を変え、明・清は公式音楽に朝鮮国俳を置き、 事大・従属関係を堅固なものとし、日本は朝鮮との関係において優位であること を誇示する手段として雅楽を選択したという点がこれを例証していると考え た。