朝鮮時代 觀音菩薩圖 硏究 = A Study of Paintings of the Avalokites´vara during the Chosun Dynasty

다국어 초록 (Multilingual Abstract)

朝鮮時代は佛敎が國敎であった高麗時代とは違い、性理學を新しい政治理念として儒敎立國を目指した王朝である。したがって　朝鮮時代の佛敎は崇儒抑佛という國家基本理念の中で、少なくない彈壓と犧牲を凌がざるを得なかった。
それにもかかわらず、佛敎の觀音菩薩信仰は儒敎的な名分の持つ限界性と問題點を補ってくれたし、したがって朝鮮時代の觀音信仰は佛敎の宗敎性やその役割においても大事な意味を持っていた。そういう影響で多くの觀音菩薩圖が描かれたのも推測できる。
ここでは朝鮮時代の觀音菩薩圖圖像の多樣性とその表現技法の獨自性に注目して論旨を展開した。
Ⅱ章では觀音菩薩圖の製作背景になる觀音菩薩の起源と性格、そして信仰について論じてみた。合わせて、朝鮮時代の觀音菩薩圖の製作背景といえる朝鮮時代の觀音信仰に對しても纏めた。みられる、朝鮮王朝實錄に現れた初期王室の觀音信仰の形態を始めとして、さまざまな制約を受けながら刊行された觀音關連の書籍を調べた後、觀音信仰が普遍になるまでの過程を推察してみた。
Ⅲ章では朝鮮時代に製作された觀音菩薩圖の中で、脇侍としての圖像を除き、單獨像としての觀音菩薩圖だけを形式分類し、その圖像の成立と展開過程を綿密に考察してみた。その結果まず、朝鮮時代の觀音菩薩圖は高麗佛畵に現れる半跏坐の典型的な水月觀音圖とはその形式の面で差があることがわかった。それで、半跏坐を始めとして輪王坐·結跏趺坐、そして立像などの多樣な形式についしても詳しい分類を行い、朝鮮の觀音菩薩圖はそれらの形式の中でどんな圖像を受け入れて、それをどのように變化していったかを伺ってみた。結論的に、觀音菩薩圖像の成立においては中國の影響も見過ごせなかったが、朝鮮時代まで流れる觀音菩薩圖像の展開過程においては前の時代であった高麗からの傳統も見逃せないこを確かめた。14世紀高麗時代の鏡像を始め、同じ時期の銅造菩薩像から、もう同じ圖像のあったことがわかった。また、15世紀に製作され、現在日本承天寺に所藏されている<水月觀音圖>を通して朝鮮時代輪王坐の觀音圖像が中國明代の法海寺の觀音菩薩壁畵から直接的な影響を受けて成立したという見解には誤謬のあることを指摘した。
Ⅳ章では朝鮮時代觀音菩薩圖の畵面の構成、そして表現技法及び畵法上の 特徵について詳しく檢討してみた。先行樣式(高麗の傳統技法)にたいしても考察した後、朝鮮時代の觀音菩薩圖の中から新しい傾向を持っている作品を始めとして、‘朝鮮初期の新しい畵風’、‘16世紀朝鮮時代の畵法の確立’、‘朝鮮期 畵法の複層性’という順序で、朝鮮時代 觀音菩薩圖の多樣な形式とその表現方法の獨自性について伺ってみた。
‘朝鮮初期の新しい畵風’では、これらの作品のすべてが高麗水月觀音圖の圖像の技法を受け繼がれている反面、朝鮮初期のいろいろな佛敎信仰の形態を反影する複合的な圖像を創案·摸索していたことを確かめた。それで、朝鮮時代觀音菩薩圖には前の時代にはない現世の人物が登場し、天部、龍王·龍女、鳥、本地佛、韋태天、四天王などの新しい圖像の構成要素を通した具體的で說明的な表現の變化があった。しかし、柄など細部表現においては省略と單純化の傾向を見せた。
‘16世紀朝鮮時代の畵法の確立’では、圖の構圖の面で主題を配置する方法が多樣化したことを確かめた。表現技法においては當時の畵風と高慮傳統技法を適切に利用しているが、金泥の適切な使用と高麗時代の傳統的　　　　　な紋樣である唐草蓮華圓紋の使用がそのいい例である。また、16世紀作品の觀音菩薩の顔面部の形態とも類似点が見え、こういう顔の描寫は同時代の王室關聯の佛畵とも親密性があって注目を注いだ。
‘朝鮮後期畵法の複層性’では、朝鮮後期觀音菩薩圖が多くあるだけではなく、その表現にも多樣な特性があったため、表現技法を中心に傳統要素を濃く受け入れている作品と、傳統技法を受け入れながら獨自性を追い求める傾向の濃い作品とを分けて伺ってみた。その結果、半世紀という長い時間が經ったにもかかわらず、前の時代の傳統的な技法を尊重する畵風が殘っていたことがわかった。そして高麗時代と朝鮮時代の社會的な背景と信仰形態の相違点が見つけたし、觀音菩薩圖の圖像の構成要素に對する槪念の變化もあったが、畵風だけにおいてはその脈が受け繼がれて先の時代の技法を受け入れながらも、朝鮮時代の社會、宗敎的な狀況を反映した圖像を多樣化していった。しかし、畵面の構成要素が多くなり、主題の明瞭さに乏しい点があって、やはり高麗の水月觀音圖に見える密度の高い顯現性にはおよばない。また、朝鮮後期になると、原色の顔料を生かす傾向もみせ、姿勢においても傳統的な半跏坐姿勢と正面向を混合させた獨特な姿勢を表現する。律動感と緊張感をのがした姿勢の表現は畵面全體の密集力をかける原因となった。一方、朝鮮の後期になると、現世の人物を觀音菩薩圖に登場させる傾向がもっと積極的になるが、善材童子の顔に俗世人物の顔をうつすことがそのいい例である。
Ⅴ章では、前章で述べた朝鮮時代觀音菩薩圖の持つ性格について、畵面の構成、畵面を構成する各各のモチ-フ、朝鮮時代の觀音菩薩圖ならではの表現技法、そして朝鮮時代觀音菩薩圖に現れる紋樣のいろいろな面から詳しく分類して纏めてみた。特に朝鮮時代觀音菩薩圖は前の時代の高麗水月觀音圖とは違う構成要素があることがわかれ、‘圖像の構成要素の變化’というい側面から考察してみた。その結果、朝鮮時代觀音菩薩圖の俗世人物の登場はすぐ圖像槪念の變化を意味し、圖像槪念の變化は需用者階層の差に起因していると推察してみた。高麗佛畵の性格は基本的に貴族的で、佛敎の槪念を理解できる水準の階層を對象にしていた。反面、朝鮮佛畵は女人層、または佛敎 敎理に對する理解が充分でない階層を對象にしていたためだという結論におよび、これはやはり佛敎を護國之敎と目指した高慮時代佛敎の信仰形態と、國家の保護を受けることができなかった大變な狀況の中で庶民的な性格を持つしかなかった朝鮮時代の佛敎信仰形態とも關聯のあることを言及した。
本稿では現在殘っている觀音菩薩圖を通して朝鮮時代の觀音菩薩圖の形式そして、圖像の成立過程、また畵風を中心として觀音菩薩圖の展開過程などをたどってみた。しかし、關聯資料をもっと多く綜合、綿密に分析すれば、朝鮮時代までその命脈を維持してきた佛畵の中での觀音菩薩圖ならではの特性がさらに明確になるはずだと思う。合わせてまだ解かない疑問点についても今後とも繼續的な硏究が必要だと思われる。

다국어 초록 (Multilingual Abstract)

Unlike the Koryo dynasty, which had considered Buddhism the state religion, the Chosun dynasty professed Confucianism, adopting metaphysicsas a new political ideology. Therefore, Buddhism suffered a lot of suppression during the Chosun dynasty under the nation's fundamental ideology, which admired Confucianism and ignored Buddhism.
In Buddhism, the Bodhisattva of Compassionis very important so many paintings depicting her have been made. This study focuses on a variety of paintings of the Bodhisattva of Compassion to show the uniqueness of the techniques used to express this Buddhist figure during the Chosun dynasty.
In Chapter Ⅰ, the study examined the origins and characteristics as well as the religious overtones of the Bodhisattva of Avalokites'vara, which is a series of paintings of the goddess of the same name. In addition, this study also pointed out that the Chosun dynasty Buddhist belief in mercy is also an element in the series of the Bodhisattva of Compassion paintings. First of all, this study looked at mercy as practiced by the early royal family described in the book The True Record of the Chosun Dynasty and related books published under lots of circumstantial limitations. Then, the study analyzed the process that the belief of Mercy became a part of paintings.
In Chapter Ⅱ, we classified paintings that described the Bodhisattva of Avalokites'vara as an individual figure, excluding paintings that described her among various figures produced during the Chosun dynasty. That is, we pointed out that the form of sitting position of the Bodhisattva of Compassion depicted during the Chosun dynasty was different from the position of Avalokitesvara Bodhisattva with Water and Moon produced during the Koryo dynasty. Then the study examined what kinds of paintings that described the Bodhisattva of Compassion as an individual figure were accepted and how they classified various positions such as sitting with one's legs half-crossed, the king's seated position, sitting with one's legs completely crossed and folded over each other, and a standing position. As a result, we confirmed that the establishment of the paintings described the Bodhisattva of Compassion as an individual figure came from a Koryo dynasty tradition, the period before the Chosun dynasty, although the paintings were also slightly influenced by China. For example, the same figure was already inscribed on a copper mirror, and a Buddhist saint was made of copper in the fourteenth century. We also pointed out that that view was wrong: the paintings that showed the Bodhisattva of Compassion as an individual figure in the king's position were directly influenced by the mural paintings of the Bodhisattva of Avalokites'vara in 法海寺 from the Ming dynasty in ancient China. A painting depicting Merciful Water and Moon produced in the fifteenth century and preserved by 承天寺 (Shotenji Temple) in Japan.
In Chapter Ⅲ, we closely examined the screen layout, expressive techniques, and drawing features used in paintings of the Bodhisattva of Compassion during the Chosun dynasty. First of all, this study considered the previous techniques (the traditional techniques of the Koryo dynasty) before examining paintings of the Bodhisattva of Compassion during the Chosun dynasty, and then studied various forms and the uniqueness of the expressive techniques reflected in the paintings of the Bodhisattva of Avalokites'vara made during the Chosun dynasty through reviewing the new painting style used to depict the Bodhisattva of Avalokites'vara . Then we examined various forms and unique expressive techniques in the paintings of the Bodhisattva of Avalokites'vara amid chronological flows of the new painting style of the early Chosun dynasty, the establishment of painting technique during the sixteenth-century Chosun dynasty, and the double-layer characteristics of the painting technique of the late Chosun dynasty.
In the section on the new painting style of the early Chosun dynasty, we discovered that all these works of art succeeded the form and technique of Avalokitesvara Bodhisattva with Water and Moon painting style used during the Koryo dynasty and created and searched for a compound form that reflected various forms of Buddhism during the early Chosun period. Thus, in paintings of the Bodhisattva of Compassion of the Chosun dynasty, the goddess appeared as a person in this world, unlike the previous periods, and introduced new pictorial elements such as 天部 (the guardian of Buddhism), 龍王 (the Sea God), 龍女, 鳥(bird), 本地佛 (the original form of Buddha), 韋&#39364;天 (the guardian of Buddhism), and 四天王 (the four heavenly guardians of Buddhism), pointing out that the painting style definitely changed. However, the trend showed that they omitted and simplified detailed expressions such as patterns.
In the section about the establishment of painting techniques of the sixteenth century Chosun dynasty, it appeared that the artists used various subject layouts in painting compositions combining the traditional method of the Koryo dynasty with the Chosun period painting technique. Good examples of the above are the use of gold dust mixed with glue and 蓮花唐草圓紋 (lotus and tendril pattern), a traditional pattern of the Koryo dynasty. There was also a similarity in the descriptions of the face of the Buddhist Goddess of Mercy of the sixteenth-century works of art. This description of faces drew attention since there was a similarity with Buddhist paintings related to the royal family of the period.
In the section on the double-layer characteristics of the painting technique of the late Chosun dynasty, we divided works of art into two typesthe ones having lots of traditional factors in expression technique and the others having uniqueness while accepting the traditional techniquesince there were lots of paintings of the Bodhisattva of Compassionin the late Chosun period. As a result, we found that there still remained a painting style that respected the traditional techniques of the previous period even after a half-century has passed. Although there was a difference in the social background and form of religion between the Koryo and Chosun dynasties and elements in the paintings of the Bodhisattva of Compassion have been changed, the painting style followed the techniques of the previous period and reflected the social and religious situation of the Chosun dynasty, which diversified the forms of the painting. However, these paintings could not reach the expression of concentration that appeared in the paintings of Avalokitesvara Bodhisattva with Water and Moon of the Koryo period since there were too many consisting screen factors, which led to a lack of clearness of subject. The late Chosun dynasty showed a trend that used primary colors and expressed very unique positions of the Bodhisattva of Compassion, which mixed traditional sitting with one's legs half-crossed position with the facing the front position. Expressions of positions without dynamic sense and tension became a factor that led to a lack of concentration in the whole screen. On the other hand, paintings in this period more actively tried to make people in this world appear in the paintings of the Bodhisattva of Compassion. A good example is a reflection of the people's faces on the face of Sudhana.
In Chapter Ⅴ , we divided the characteristics paintings of the Bodhisattva of Avalokites'vara in the Chosun dynasty into detailed factors in terms of a formation of screen, each motif of the screen, unique expression technique in painting of the Bodhisattva of Avalokites'vara, and patterns that appeared in the paintings. In particular, we focused on the fact that these paintings had different factors compared to the paintings of Avalokitesvara Bodhisattva with Water and Moon in the Koryo dynasty and considered them in view of 'the change of elements. Thus, we assumed that there was a change in the concept of painting since there were paintings of the Bodhisattva of Compassion in the Chosun dynasty depictingpersons in this world, which were presumably caused bydifferences in social classes. Buddhist paintings from the Koryo dynasty were basically for nobles and the classes that were capable of understanding the concept of Buddhism. On the other hand, Buddhist paintings from the Chosun dynasty mainly targeted women and the low classes. We also mentioned that this phenomenon was caused by different social atmospheres between the Koryo and Chosun dynasties the Koryo dynasty professed Buddhism as a state religion to defend the country, while the Chosun dynasty did not protect Buddhism, which was preserved by the low class. This study tried to examine the succeeding processes of paintings of the Bodhisattva of Compassion of the Chosun dynasty by focusing on form, painting process, and painting style through examining the existing paintings of the Bodhisattva of Compassion. The characteristics of the paintings of the Bodhisattva of Compassion of the Chosun dynasty that were hardly preserved during the period can be more clarified by composing additional materials and thoroughly analyzing them. This study requires follow-up research to solve other questions in the near future.

목차 (Table of Contents)

• 目次
• Ⅰ. 序論 = 1
• 1. 硏究目的 = 1
• 2. 硏究內容 및 方法 = 4
• Ⅱ. 觀音菩薩圖의 成立 = 6
• 1. 관음보살의 기원 = 6
• 2. 관음보살의 성격과 신앙 = 9
• 3. 조선시대의 관음신앙 = 15
• Ⅲ. 朝鮮時代 觀音菩薩圖의 形式과 圖像의 成立 = 31
• 1. 立像 = 31
• 2. 坐像 = 37
• (1) 輪王坐像 = 37
• (2) 半跏坐像 = 45
• (3) 結跏坐像 = 50
• 3. 其他 = 53
• Ⅳ. 朝鮮時代 觀音菩薩圖의 展開 = 55
• 1. 선행양식 -고려 전통 화풍 = 55
• 2. 조선 초기 새로운 화풍 -신경향 = 61
• 3. 16세기 조선시대 화법의 확립 = 70
• 4. 조선시대 후기 화풍의 복층성 = 77
• (1) 전통양식의 수용 = 77
• (2) 독자성 지향 = 84
• Ⅴ. 朝鮮時代 觀音菩薩圖의 樣式的 特徵 = 93
• Ⅵ. 結論 = 113
• 參考文獻 = 121
• 圖版目錄 = 129
• 圖版 = 133
• ABSTRACT = 161
• 日文抄錄 = 167