Democratization in Southeast Asia for the Last Decade: An Empirical Analysis

다국어 초록 (Multilingual Abstract)

Contrary to expectations and hope, precarious democratic drives in Southeast Asian countries have been stalled for the past decade. On the other side of some nominal aspects of democracy such as elections, the Southeast Asian countries on the continent became under authoritarian or military-backed regimes, and those on islands are witnessing political scandals, corruption, and human rights issues. This article looks into the factors affecting democratization in order to understand different levels of democratization in the countries of Southeast Asia, considering political, economic, social, cultural and international dimensions whose data are tested to determine which factor is most likely to explain the causality. As found in the case in Sub-Saharan Africa, are press freedom and corruption still the major factors that influence democratization in Southeast Asia? The case of Southeast Asia tells a similar but different story. As in Sub-Saharan Africa, the most important factor affecting democratization in Southeast Asia turns out to be press freedom, but literacy and globalization as factors are more relevant in Southeast Asia, rather than in Africa.

참고문헌 (Reference)

1 이동윤, "동남아의 인권정책과 지역협력: 필리핀, 태국, 인도네시아의 사례 비교" 21세기정치학회 20 (20): 227-248, 2010

2 "Who are we?"

3 Transparency International, "What is corruption?"

4 Rivetti, R., "Upgrading Civil Society in Iran: Dynamics of Adaptation"

5 Liu Yangyue, "Transgressiveness, civil society and Internet control in Southeast Asia" Informa UK Limited 27 (27): 383-407, 2014

6 Wen Zha, "Trans-border ethnic groups and interstate relations within ASEAN: a case study on Malaysia and Thailand’s southern conflict" Oxford University Press (OUP) lcw011-, 2016

7 Brown, D., "The State and Ethnic Politics in Southeast Asia" Routledge 2002

8 Kurlantzick, J., "The Pivot and Democratic Regression in Southeast Asia"

9 Mahaseth, H., "The Myanmar Coup and the Role of ASEAN"

10 Thompson, M. R., "The Limits of Democratisation in ASEAN" 14 (14): 469-484, 1993

11 Peou, S., "The Limits and Potential of Liberal Democratisation in Southeast Asia" 33 (33): 19-47, 2014

12 Sukma, R., "The European Union and democracy building in Southeast Asia"

13 Petcharamesree, S., "The ASEAN human rights architecture : its development and challenges" 11 : 46-60, 2013

14 Paul Chambers, "Thailand’s Thwarted Democratization" Informa UK Limited 47 (47): 149-175, 2019

15 Garry Rodan, "Special Issue on electronic media, markets and civil society in East and Southeast Asia: Introduction" Informa UK Limited 16 (16): 455-464, 2003

16 Frank B. Tipton, "Southeast Asian capitalism: History, institutions, states, and firms" Springer Science and Business Media LLC 26 (26): 401-434, 2008

17 Kunstadter, P., "Southeast Asian Tribes, Minorities, and Nations, Volume 1(Princeton Legacy Library, 5084)" Princeton University Press 2017

18 Dayley, R., "Southeast Asia in the New International Era" Routledge 2019

19 Keck, Z., "Southeast Asia Retreats From Democracy"

20 Lande, C. H., "Rebuilding a Nation" Penguin Random House 1999

21 Singh, J. T. N., "Process of Institutionalisation and Democratisation in ASEAN: Features, Challenges and Prospects of Regionalism in Southeast Asia"

22 Lee, J. H., "Primary Causes of Asian Democratization : Dispelling Conventional Myths" 42 (42): 821-837, 2002

23 International Institute for Democracy and Electoral Assistance, "Press Freedom and the Global State of Democracy Indices"

24 Guibernau, M., "Nationalisms : The Nation-State and Nationalism in the Twentieth Century" Polity 1996

25 Ganesan, N., "Myanmar : State, Society and Ethnicity" ISEAS-Yusof Ishak Institute 2007

26 UNESCO, "Literacy rate"

27 United Nations, "Literacy for life, work, lifelong learning and education for democracy"

28 Andaya, B. W., "Introduction to Southeast Asia"

29 Hao Duy Phan, "Institutions for the Protection of Human Rights in Southeast Asia: A Survey Report" ISEAS - Yusof Ishak Institute 31 (31): 468-, 2009

30 Freedom House, "In All Data, FIW 2013-2022"

31 서준수, "How States Violate Human Rights Treaties: Case of the Thailand 2020 Protests" 한국태국학회 28 (28): 115-152, 2021

32 Chambers, P., "Hindering Democratization: Thailand’s Well- Traveled Trojan Horse"

33 Jacques Bertrand, "Growth and Democracy in Southeast Asia" JSTOR 30 (30): 355-, 1998

34 Loh Kok Wah, F., "Globalization, Development and Democratization in Southeast Asia" Restructuring Governance and Deepening Democracy. Institute of Southeast Asian Studies (ISEAS) 2005

35 Hardt, M., "Globalization and Democracy"

36 Hettne, B., "Globalisation, Regionalisation and Security : The Asian Experience" 14 (14): 28-46, 2001

37 World Bank, "GNI per capita, PPP (current international $)"

38 Gerard Clarke, "From ethnocide to ethnodevelopment? Ethnic minorities and indigenous peoples in Southeast Asia" Informa UK Limited 22 (22): 413-436, 2001

39 Freedom House, "Freedom in the World"

40 Björn Hettne, "Ethnicity and development—An elusive relationship" Informa UK Limited 2 (2): 123-149, 1993

41 Snitwongse, K., "Ethnic Conflicts in Southeast Asia" ISEAS-Yusof Ishak Institute 2005

42 Jasmin Lorch, "Elite capture, civil society and democratic backsliding in Bangladesh, Thailand and the Philippines" Informa UK Limited 28 (28): 81-102, 2020

43 Dalpino, C. E., "Does Globalization Promote Democracy?: An early assessment"

44 Aim Sinpeng, "Digital media, political authoritarianism, and Internet controls in Southeast Asia" SAGE Publications 42 (42): 25-39, 2019

45 Emmers, R., "Democratization, National Identity and Indonesia’s Foreign Policy"

46 David Martin Jones, "Democratization, Civil Society, and Illiberal Middle Class Culture in Pacific Asia" JSTOR 30 (30): 147-, 1998

47 유호근 ; 설규상, "Democratization in Sub-Saharan Africa: An Empirical Analysis" 한국국제정치학회 16 (16): 223-251, 2018

48 Miichi, K., "Democratization and the Changing Role of Civil Society in Indonesia"

49 Amitav Acharya, "Democratisation and the prospects for participatory regionalism in Southeast Asia" Informa UK Limited 24 (24): 375-390, 2003

50 Jürgen Rüland, "Democratic backsliding, regional governance and foreign policymaking in Southeast Asia: ASEAN, Indonesia and the Philippines" Informa UK Limited 28 (28): 237-257, 2020

51 Mantel, B., "Democracy in Southeast Asia: Will the region become more democratic?"

52 Parameswaran, P., "Democracy in Southeast Asia: Between Discontent and Hope"

53 Neil A. Englehart, "Democracy and the Thai Middle Class: Globalization, Modernization, and Constitutional Change" University of California Press 43 (43): 253-279, 2003

54 Vishal Chandr Jaunky, "Democracy and economic growth in Sub-Saharan Africa: a panel data approach" Springer Science and Business Media LLC 45 (45): 987-1008, 2012

55 Fadillah Putra, "Democracy and Social Policy in Southeast Asia: A Comparative Process Tracing Analysis" Universitas Indonesia, Directorate of Research and Public Service 5 (5): 221-, 2020

56 M Faishal Aminuddin, "Democracy and Development in Southeast Asia: A Critical Comparison" LPPM UNPAR 15 (15): 147-163, 2019

57 Economist Intelligence Unit, "Democracy Index 2021: The China challenge"

58 Economist Intelligence Unit, "Democracy Index 2021"

59 Repucci, S., "Declining Democracy and Threats to Media Freedom"

60 Drapalova, E., "Corruption and the crisis of democracy"

61 Eva-Lotta E. Hedman, "Contesting State and Civil Society: Southeast Asian Trajectories" Cambridge University Press (CUP) 35 (35): 921-951, 2001

62 Ansori, M. H., "Consumerism and the Emergence of a New Middle Class in Globalizing Indonesia" 9 (9): 87-97, 2009

63 Margolin, J. L., "Connecting through colonisation? In ASEF Outlook Report 2016/2017, CONNECTIVITY: Facts and Perspectives"

64 Thalang, C. N., "Comparing Aceh and Thailand's Southern Border Provinces" 57 (57): 690-715, 2017

65 Case, W., "Civil Society in Southeast Asia: Not All It’s Cracked Up to Be"

66 Rodan, G., "Civil Society in Southeast Asia(Elements in Politics and Society in Southeast Asia)" Cambridge University Press 2022

67 Lee, H. G., "Civil Society in Southeast Asia"

68 South, A., "Civil Society in Burma: The Development of Democracy amidst Conflict" East-West Center 2008

69 Cushman, J., "Changing Identities of the Southeast Asian Chinese Since World War II" Coronet Books 1988

70 Peter A. Jackson, "Autonomy and subordination in Thai history: the case for semicolonial analysis" Informa UK Limited 8 (8): 329-348, 2007

71 Montserrat Guibernau, "Anthony D. Smith on nations and national identity: a critical assessment" Wiley 10 (10): 125-141, 2004

72 Kelly Gerard, "ASEAN and civil society activities in ‘created spaces’: the limits of liberty" Informa UK Limited 27 (27): 265-287, 2014

73 Rother, S., "ASEAN Civil Society under the Myanmar Chairmanship"