남성 중심적 IT 산업에서 여성 개발자의 적응과 대응

원유빈 연세대학교 대학원 2021 국내석사

This study was conducted to identify work-related performance and gender positioning of women in their 20s and 30s whose pursuit of careers in software development is regarded non-traditional. This study examined how they adapted and responded to being women software developers, a rapidly growing segment of the workforce in the booming software industry in the post-financial crisis era, in the male-dominated information technology (IT) industry by exploring their pre-employment and employment experiences. The IT industry has been traditionally dominated by men. Men account for nearly 90% of software developers in South Korea and worldwide. With men occupying the vast majority of software developer positions, the so-called gongdori (engineering guy) culture has come to be at the heart of industry that emphasizes programming skills but depreciates soft skills, such as face-to-face communication. However, the Fourth Industrial Revolution has increased both the supply and demand for developers and recently opened the industry's doors wider to women computer science majors and men who did not major in computer science but are valued for their communication skills. Government policies have increased the supply of software developers. The South Korean government's Third National Skills Development Policy provided state-sponsored vocational training programs related to national strategic IT industries and created many low-wage, labor-intensive jobs. By 2018, the proportion of men and women in state-sponsored IT vocational programs were approximately equal. In addition, around this time, young women graduating from vocational schools, such as Meister high schools, and expensive software development bootcamps without computer science-related university degrees began to gain entry into the software development industry. The IT industry has acknowledged the ever-diversifying routes into the field by establishing a pyramidal labor structure that finely assesses and classifies employees. In this structure, young developers are easily exploited and replaced, in stark contrast to their often rosy outlooks when they begin their careers. This study examined the work experiences of women developers in the 20s and 30s who did not major in computer science in college in this stratified labor system in the IT industry. The most of developers who participated in this study had less than 4 years of work experience and began their careers around 2018 when there was a boom in state sponsorship for vocational training. This study was conducted through digital participatory observation and in-depth interviews to investigate IT industry's structure and male-dominated culture and analyze how women adapted and responded to this structure and culture. Analysis showed that the factors that supported their continued employment hinged on their jobs’ flexibility and autonomy, but they were considered internal outsiders. The gendered labor division with women largely engaged in front-end development and men engaged in back-end development affects developers’ career paths. Men's back-end development positions lead to more seniority while women's front-end development positions lead to more planning and communication management. Women's careers can also be interrupted by pregnancy and maternity leave, which adds to the industry's perception of women as casual workers. Women developers’ work is perceived as flexible but also as having similar characteristics to creative digital labor whose precarity demands constant self-development. The participants in this study continued to exist in the labor market by strategically utilizing their identities as both women and developers. Their first strategy was to refrain from engaging in notably feminine behaviors, such as wearing makeup or speaking in various ways that would be considered feminine. They did not limit their identities to those of women alone and recognized gendered discrimination to be old-fashioned, leading to blind faith in meritocracy. Based on the belief that their abilities alone can lead to success, they routinely invested their time and energy in self-development. Their second strategy was to take an individualistic attitude to life by distinctly separating their private and public lives. This separation led to a lack of women mentors in the workplace, further isolating women who were already a minority. Women who were unable to find peer groups were likely to experience insecurity and alienation, further deepening their pessimism about pursuing a career in South Korea and inspiring them to seek careers abroad. Their third strategy was to form solidarity with fellow women developers outside of work. They expanded their networks with other women by engaging in side projects related to liberal arts or sociology and exchanging information related to their careers. This third strategy was in line with the feminism rebooted trend. The emergence of these women demonstrated the importance of communication in the IT industry. It also influenced the industry to produce diverse types of software that help dismantle its predominant man-oriented values. However, there were limitations to these strategies. The participants had to work overtime in the face of an industry continuing to perpetuate the male-dominated culture in which communication skills were not valued. This model of labor will continue to cultivate a neoliberal capitalist-favoring labor structure that willingly pushes developers to work overtime and experience burnout. Therefore, this study suggest restructuring of the Korean IT industry’s current employee model and a transformation of its job market, so that the merits of 'flexibility' and 'autonomy' can be promoted in a legitimate work culture and developers of diverse locations can enter the industry. 본 연구는 다양한 트랙을 통해 ‘소프트웨어 개발자’가 된 20-30대 여성들에 관한 연구이다. 그중에서도 세계 금융 위기 이후 소프트웨어 산업의 발전과 함께 급속도로 늘어나고 있는 비전공 출신 여성 개발자들의 입직 전후 과정을 통해, 남성 다수의 노동 시장인 IT 산업 내 여성들의 적응과 대응 과정을 분석한다. IT 산업은 전통적으로 남성의 영역으로 인식됐다. 우리나라뿐 아니라 전 세계 소프트웨어 개발자의 성비는 남성이 약 90%에 달한다. 이러한 남성 다수의 구조는 컴퓨터에만 몰두해 대면 의사소통 능력 등 ‘소프트 스킬’은 업무 능력으로 인정하지 않는, 소위 ‘너드(nerd)’, ‘공돌이’식 개발자 문화를 만들어냈다. 그러나 4차 산업혁명 담론의 도래 이후 개발자의 수요와 공급은 빠르게 늘었고, 최근에는 의사소통 능력을 갖춘 비전공자 남성과 여성도 IT 업계로 다수 진출하기 시작했다. 이들의 수요 증가에는 국가 정책이 큰 영향을 미쳤다. 정보통신 분야의 국가기간 전략사업 직종 훈련 과정을 기반으로 하는 정부의 제3차 직업능력개발 정책에 따라, 국비 지원 교육 과정을 통해 연계되는 저임금 중노동 일자리가 다수 생겨났기 때문이다. 특히 2018년에 접어들면서부터는 이 국비 지원 교육 과정에 여성과 남성의 비율이 큰 차이가 없을 만큼 여성의 참여도가 늘었다. 더불어 마이스터 고등학교 등 직업학교 출신, 고비용의 소프트웨어 개발자 양성 프로그램인 ‘부트캠프’ 출신 등 컴퓨터 관련 대학 전공자 외에도 다양한 루트를 통해 개발자가 된 청년 여성들이 생겨나기 시작했다. 이러한 루트에 따라 IT 산업 내에는 개발자에 대한 처우 또는 발전 가능성 등을 기반으로 하는 피라미드형 노동 구조가 형성되었다. 이 구조 아래 청년 개발자들의 노동력은 입직 시의 낙관적인 미래와는 별개로 쉽게 소모되고 교체된다. 본 연구는 이 수직적인 노동 구조로 유입되는 20-30대 비전공 여성 개발자들이 일터에서 겪는 경험에 주목한다. 이들은 국비 지원 정책의 붐이 일었던 2018년을 전후로 IT 산업으로 유입된 저연차 여성들이다. 연구자는 디지털 참여관찰과 심층면접을 통해 업계의 구조와 남성 중심의 성별화된 문화를 조사하고, 이에 여성 개발자들이 적응하고 대응해나가는 방식을 분석했다. 이들의 주요 입직 요인은 업계의 ‘유연성’과 ‘자율성’의 특성에서 기반하지만, 여성들은 이 특성 아래서도 모순적인 위치에 놓이게 된다. ‘여성은 프론트엔드’, ‘남성은 백엔드’로 구분되는 성별 분업을 기반으로 성별에 따라 각기 다른 커리어 패스(career path)가 요구된다. 남성의 경우 개발자로 커리어를 이어가며 고위 관리자로 상승하지만, 여성의 경우 기획 및 소통을 담당하는 중간 관리자로 상승하는 경향을 보인다. 이 과정에서 여성은 여전히 임신과 출산으로 인한 경력 단절 현상을 경험하는 등 임시 노동자로 인식된다. 즉, 여성 개발자의 일은 ‘유연성’을 강조하지만 결국 ‘불안정성’에 기반해 지속적인 자기 계발에 몰두하게 하는 ‘디지털 창의 노동’의 성격을 갖는다. 여성들은 ‘여성’과 ‘비전공자’라는 이중적인 정체성 안에서 지속해서 노동 시장에 머무르기 위한 전략을 취한다. 첫 번째 전략은 ‘꾸밈’과 ‘의사소통 방식’ 등 일상적인 영역에서 성별을 드러내지 않는 것이다. 스스로도 여성임을 인식하지 않고자 하며, 성차별은 구시대적인 것으로 정의 내린다. 이는 능력주의에 대한 맹신으로 이어진다. ‘능력만 있으면 된다’는 믿음을 바탕으로 기계적인 자기 계발을 지속한다. 두 번째 전략은 개인주의적인 태도를 바탕으로 사내에서 공과 사를 철저하게 분리하는 것이다. 이는 이미 소수인 여성들을 더욱 고립시켜 여성 선배를 찾을 수 없게 하는 ‘여성 멘토 부족’ 현상으로도 연결된다. 여성들은 동료를 찾을 수 없다는 불안감과 소외감을 더욱 쉽게 느낀다. 또한 국내에서의 커리어 패스에 대한 비관으로 해외로의 이직을 꿈꾸기도 한다. 마지막 전략은 여성 개발자 모임을 통해 일터 밖 연대를 형성하는 것이다. 업무 외의 ‘사이드 프로젝트’로 인문·사회학적 의미를 반영한 개발물을 만들어내고자 노력하거나, 여성 후배에 대한 멘토링을 자처하고 이직 정보 공유 등 여성 간의 연결성을 확장한다. 이는 ‘페미니즘 리부트’ 이후 새롭게 주목 받고 있는 현상이다. 이러한 여성들의 등장으로 업계에 비로소 소통 능력의 중요성이 대두되기 시작했다. 단일화된 남성 중심의 가치를 해체하고 다양성을 중시하는 개발물 또한 생겨나고 있다. 하지만 업계는 여전히 언제든 초과 근무가 가능하고, 소통에는 취약한 너드형 남성을 바람직한 노동자상(相)으로 단일화된 기준을 두고 있기 때문에, 여성들의 개인화된 전략에는 많은 한계가 뒤따른다. 이렇게 남성 중심의 단일한 노동자상은 지속적인 추가 노동과 사회적 과로를 유발하는 신자유주의 자본가 위주의 수직적 노동 구조를 유지하게 한다. 따라서 본 논문에서는 IT 업계의 장점인 ‘유연성’과 ‘자율성’의 실질적인 발현을 위한 노동자상을 재설정하고, 이를 통해 다양한 위치에 있는 노동자의 유입과 노동 시장의 재편을 제언하고자 한다.

Women's development through "empowerment": The gender of the state and the state of gender in India

Sharma, Aradhana Stanford University 2001 해외박사(DDOD)

소속기관이 구독 중이 아닌 경우 오후 4시부터 익일 오전 9시까지 원문보기가 가능합니다.

“Empowerment” has emerged as the most favored strategy for women's development in the last decade. In this dissertation I examine what happens when the state, a domain within which social inequalities are institutionalized, takes on the task of “empowering” poor women so that they can struggle against social hierarchies and develop themselves. I approach the conundrum of “state-initiated women's ‘empowerment’” through analyzing the politics, practices, and effects of the <italic>Mahila Samakhya</italic> (MS) program, a Government of India-initiated “empowerment” program that targets poor rural women. This dissertation combines an institutional and a rural-level ethnography of the MS program, and is an interdisciplinary feminist analysis of the “gender-development-state” triad. I argue that development is an enabling and “productive” space for subaltern women, and not simply a monolithic disciplinary force in their lives. Even though the Indian state's development discourse attempts to position women in particular identity slots and to discipline them, it is unable to realize its goal. Women contest the hegemonic development discourse of the state through negotiating developmentalist constructions of their identities, redefining development as entitlement, and demanding that the state ensure their development rights. Women learn about statist methods through their participation in state-initiated programs, as both clients and employees, and use these methods to subvert statist discipline and repression. In showing how women engage with statist development discourses and practices I mark the space of the female as subaltern subject and illustrate how women's subjectivity and agency are shaped, in ambiguous and conflicting ways, through their participation in “empowerment” programs. While the “empowerment” discourse of the Indian state may actually entrench class, caste, and gender-based inequalities instead of challenging these ideologies, I argue that “empowerment” programs do end up “empowering” women albeit in ways that are not intended by the state. I show how the state's narrative on women's “empowerment” is premised on class-ist, caste-ist, and gendered notions about women's identities and work. I contend, however, that the state is not a uniformly gendered (and class/caste-based) arena. Women, I suggest, can use the contradictions and polyvocality within the domain of the state as spaces for challenge and change.

Developing women/tourist destination: Global relations and local processes at a women's craft-producing project in Nepal

Davis, Coralynn Val The University of Michigan 1999 해외박사(DDOD)

소속기관이 구독 중이 아닌 경우 오후 4시부터 익일 오전 9시까지 원문보기가 가능합니다.

In this study, I consider the intersection of women's development with global relations of production and consumption; in particular, I place women's development in the context of late-modern touristic practices and discourses. I argue that by locating women's development at the confluence of tourism, feminism, and development, we can begin to understand how the Janakpur Women's Development Center (JWDC), the ethnographic focus of my study, has become renowned for its success and why its wares are so popular among a certain sector of tourists. I demonstrate how the entanglement of a desire for unspoiled culture, an evolutionist orientation toward civilization, and a capitalist mode of relating combine with mainstream Western feminist perspectives to make women's development into a literal and figurative tourist site. Based on 15 contiguous months of ethnographic research in Nepal in 1994–1995, the story this study tells of women's development in Nepal is at once multi-stranded and multi-sited. I labor to identify the ongoing conflicts of interest that inhere in women's development at JWDC, and I attempt to understand the reasons for and effects of the growing touristic element within women's development. Taking JWDC as a case study, I focus on particular aspects and instances of women's development—for instance, at workshops and board meeting, in craft production, labor disputes, commercial exchanges, popular texts, and art exhibits. While my study demonstrates that one effect of women's development is the emergence of an even tighter grid within which project participants must enact their lives, it shows JWDC to be a site of maneuver as well as constraint, creativity and well as dislocation. And the multiplicity of interest that merge there serve to displace the political hegemony of any one such interest, creating new possibilities for envisioning and pursuing desires on the part of Maithil female subjects. I conclude that the multitude of local and international interests, as well as the plurality of culturally informed discourses intersecting at the development center in Janakpur has resulted in the emergence of a gendered, ethnic identity among the Maithil women who work there. This identity has external and internal faces, giving JWDC craft-producers the flexibility to maneuver in ways that promote the success of the project while also diminishing their vulnerability to exploitation at the hands of that project.

Empirical research on women empowerment through the use of information and communication technology (ICT) in the context of afghanistan

Muhammad, Akbar Hashimi Sungkyunkwan University 2015 국내석사

ABSTRACT Empirical Research on Women Empowerment through the use of Information and Communication Technology (ICT) in the Context of Afghanistan Muhammad Akbar Hashimi Graduate School of Governance, Sungkyunkwan University, South Korea. Women in Afghanistan are still very much in a minority among the beneficiaries of information and knowledge networking. Women still faces huge imbalances in the ownership, control and regulation of these new Information and Communication Technologies (ICTs), similar to those faced in other developing nations in the other part of the world. They face a lot of obstacles in harnessing the full potential offered by Information and Communication Technologies (ICTs), which prevents them from attaining the full benefits of development. This is because of a number of factors deters women’s participation in Afghanistan some of which are generic to all social development models, such as low levels of literacy, little access and control over economic resources, low decision-making power, cultural attitudes and perceptions, location, infrastructure and connectivity, and gender-blind approaches to development. The mainstream literature of women empowerment in the context of information and communication technology articulated various issues that affect women’s participation in nation building. However, the contextual and political reality of the Afghan nation does not provide any manifest study that examines the barriers of women’s participation in the national development through ICT. This research seeks to determine the important factors that deters and facilitates such women empowerment. Findings of the research provide that various political, cultural, demographic issues and/or personal factors affect women empowerment through ICT in Afghanistan. This paper provides theoretical and practical implications for the Afghan government and for developing nations to consider in their policy determinations and actions. Keywords: Women Empowerment, Gender Equality, Human Resource Development, Information and Communication Technology, ICT Policy

Globalization and women : the impact of industrial development on women's labor in Asia

서영희 Ewha Womans University 1999 국내박사

지난 30년 동안 아시아는 획기적인 성장을 이룩했고 이것은 전세계 경제에 커다란 공헌 뿐만이 아니라 노동력 부문에 있어서 여성참여의 커다란 증가로 이어져왔다. 여성들에게 보다 많은 노동의 기회를 제공함으로써, 경제성장이 여성진보에 관한 긍정적인 연관성을 갖는다고 가정되기도 하지만, 결과들에 관한 현실은 복합적이다. 이 연구는 동남 아시아 그리고 동아시아의 선별된 역동적인 경제체제에 있어 여성들의 노동에 관한, 특히 산업영역에 있어서 그들의 역할을 고려하면서 세계화의 영향을 분석하는 시도이다. 이것은 발전과정 기간동안에 여성들의 사회경제적 지위는 물론 노동시장에서의 여성들의 지위가 향상되었는지에 관한 평가를 위한 것이다. 노동력 참여 비율, 임금차 그리고 업무의 분리는 남성의 지위와 상대적인 취업여성의 지위를 결정하는 중요한 평가기준들이다. 성차와 발전 (GAD) 이론으로 구성된 태국과 한국의 사례 분석은 아시아에서 여성과 발전에 관한 주요한 경향과 문제들을 강조하기 위해 제시된다. 이 사례들은 여성들이 공식적인 노동시장에 참가하여 어느 정도의 성과를 얻기는 하였지만 그들의 지위는 남성들의 지위보다 하위에 머물러왔다는 것을 예시한다. 부상하는 하나의 주요한 문제는 '고용의 여성화'이다. 취업여성들은 단지 몇 개의 분야에만 그리고 그것들 가운데, 미숙련 또는 반숙련으로 분류되는 좁은 범위의 업무에 집중되어 있다. 또한 여성들의 수입은 국가발전의 수준과는 관계없이 남성들의 수입과 비교하여 낮다. 이와같은 성차이의 이데올로기 (gender ideology) 는 부정적으로 여성들의 지위에 영향을 미치는 매우 중대한 요인으로 인식된다. 사실상 이 연구는 이러한 비경제적인 요인들이 여성들의 사회경제적 지위에 중요한 영향을 미치고 또한 이러한 요인들이 궁극적으로 남성들과의 평등을 성취하는 것을 결정할 수 있을 것이라고 제시한다. 이 연구에는 여성노동과 관련된 경제적 구조조정의 충격에 관한 하나의 중요한 논의가 포함된다. 남성들과 비교하여 여성들은 불균형적인 구조조정의 대가를 감수한다는 사실을 보여준다. 아시아 국가들의 재정위기를 고려해보면 이 결과는 노동에 관한 중대한 함축된 의미들을 갖는다. 재정위기의 위협은 노동시장 참여에 의해 그들이 아주 힘들게 성취한 결과들을 역진시킬 우려가 있기 때문에 여성들을 지원하기 위한 효과적인 조치들이 제정될 필요가 있다. 이 연구는 아시아 경제에 있어서 노동시장에서 발견되는 불평등을 다루기 위해서는 정부의 역할이 결정적이라는 것으로 결론을 맺는다. 만일 경제발전이 궁극적으로 여성의 지위를 개선하고 공평함과 평등으로 이끄는 것이라면 그때 정부는 발전정책을 설정함에 있어서 성차에 민감할 필요가 있다. 그리고 정부는 의사결정 과정에 있어서 보다 많은 여성들을 개입시켜야 한다. 간략하게 말하자면 정부는 여성문제를 국가발전 목표에 통합시킬 필요가 있다. In the past three decades, Asia has achieved phenomenal growth, which has led to a great increase in women's entry into the labor force as well as the growing contribution to the global economy. While it is assumed that by providing greater working opportunities to women, economic growth has a positive association with women's advancement, the reality in outcomes is quite mixed. This study attempts to examine the impact of globalization on women's labor in selected dynamic economies in Southeast and East Asia, looking in particular at their role in the industrial sector. It is to assess whether women's position in the labor market as well as their socio-economic status has been elevated during the course of development. Labor force participation rates, wage differentials and occupational segregation are some key measures examined to determine working women's position relative to men's position. Framed by the Gender and Development (GAD) theory, case analysis of Thailand and South Korea are presented to highlight major trends and issues in regard to women and development. The cases illustrate that while women have gained from joining the formal labor market, their position has remained inferior to men's position. A major issue that emerges is the "feminization of employment" Working women are concentrated in only a few sectors and within them in a narrow range of occupations, which are categorized as low-skilled or semi-skilled. Also, women's earnings have been low compared to men, regardless of the level of the country's development. Thus, gender ideology seems to be a force negatively affecting women's position. In fact, the study suggests that such non-economic factors have significant impact on women's socio-economic status, and these factors could determine whether women will achieve equality with men in the long-run. The study includes an important discussion on the impact of economic restructuring on women's labor. It finds that compared to men, women bear disproportionately the costs of restructuring. In light of the current Asian financial crisis, this finding has critical implications for labor. Effective measures need to be established to aid women, since the financial crisis is threatening to reverse some of the hard-earned gains women have made by participating in the labor market. In study concludes that the strong role of government is crucial in order to deal with inequalities found in the labor market in the Asian economies. If economic development is to improve women's status and lead to equity and equality in the long run, then governments need to be gender-sensitive in formulating development policies. Also, they should involve more women into the decision-making process. In short, governments need to integrate women's issues with national developmental goals.

The Content and Characteristics of U.S. Enlightenment for Rural Women in Korea in the 1950s and 1960s - Analysis of New Strength

변수진 서울대학교 대학원 2017 국내석사

The purpose of this thesis is to research the enlightenment content that the U.S. wanted to deliver to rural women in Korea by analyzing the magazine New Strength, published by the United States Information Service (USIS) in the 1950s and the 1960s. The analysis reveals four types of representations of women: housewife, member of a democracy, laborer in the sphere of production, and woman leader. Each of the four types has different dimensions, and they are not discrete but rather intricately connected. The categories of housewife and a member of a liberal democracy are naturally assigned to women. Women are commonly represented as housewives because they are biological female, and are represented as members of a democracy because they have political membership like men. Meanwhile, the categories of woman laborer and woman leader are a reflection of a time when women actively participated in the sphere of production. In addition, these two types show how women took part in the sphere of production in accordance with their socio-economic status. Above all, even though four different types of women are represented in the magazine, the magazine has an embedded assumption that rural women are housewives, which corresponds with a prevalent assumption embedded in other international development projects aimed at women at that time. Moreover, it conveys the Westernized modern housewife model as an enlightened model, so content and activities for rural women’s enlightenment mainly deal with household work. This research contributes to filling up the shortage of previous studies on early rural development project in Korea under the guidance of the U.S. aid agency by focusing on gender and promoting a better understanding of rural Korean women’s experiences in the rural development project presented as a best practice model for developing countries.

Using information communication technologies for gender and development in Africa: A case study of UNIFEM and FEMNET

Asiedu, Christobel University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign 2007 해외박사(DDOD)

소속기관이 구독 중이 아닌 경우 오후 4시부터 익일 오전 9시까지 원문보기가 가능합니다.

This study examines how development organizations and Feminist Networks have incorporated Information Communication Technologies (ICTs) as part of their efforts to increase women's empowerment. The study focuses on two organizations: the United Nations Development Fund for Women (UNIFEM), a development agency and the African Women Development and Communication Network (FEMNET), an African feminist organization based in Kenya. The primary question addressed in this study is this: what do these organizations mean when they argue that "ICTs empower women"?. Using document analysis, this study analyzes the documents and ICT activities of UNIFEM and FEMNET over the period 1995-2005 in Africa. The study reveals that the ICT related development initiatives enacted by UNIFEM and FEMNET generally disregards class relations among women, ignores older technologies (i.e., focuses on new ICTs), and assumes that access to new ICTs is a panacea to all the development challenges faced by women in Africa. This discourse therefore ignores the existence of many highly skilled indigenous women in Africa who have historically been active participants of using old communication technologies such as radio to address women's rights issues. Thus, the use of ICTs as a meaningful tool to be appropriated by those on the margins of society (mostly poor, rural and non literate women) has not been realized. This dissertation argues that for ICTs to be used as a tool to empower women economically, socially and politically, there should be a bottom-up approach where poor, non-literate and rural women act as their own experts by actively using these new technologies in combination with the old (such as radios and videos) to address their own needs.

Voice as place in development: An interpretive anthropological study of women in science and technology development in Jamaica

Ramorino, Karen Bates University of San Francisco 2005 해외박사(DDOD)

소속기관이 구독 중이 아닌 경우 오후 4시부터 익일 오전 9시까지 원문보기가 가능합니다.

The research topic is on voice as place in science and technology (S&T) development. The specific research focus is on women in S&T development who are working to improve living conditions in Jamaica. The people of Jamaica have a longtime involvement with the United Nations (U.N.) to better understand how to build S&T capabilities in developing countries. In 1990, they made a national commitment to pursue S&T development by proclaiming their own national S&T policy that emphasizes economic and social improvements. An interpretive anthropological study was conducted from a critical hermeneutic orientation to create and reflect upon research conversations with thirteen women working in Jamaica as educators, administrators, leaders, and entrepreneurs in key areas of science or technology. The study explores three primary inquires: what gives voice its place in identity?; what gives voice its place in learning?; and in what ways does care emerge through voice as place in building national S&T capabilities? The study reveals the voices of the women in the context of their work and Jamaica's national S&T policy. The study concludes that the work of the women is consistent with the aim of the national S&T policy. The theoretical and descriptive analysis culminates in an assessment that recognizes many realities and possibilities discovered by the women. The study reveals practical ideas from the women for national S&T policy development, for education/curriculum development, and for Jamaican youth considering a career in science or technology. Social and cultural issues are also revealed with implications on S&T development. Further public dialogue and research is recommended in these particular areas. In summary, the study contributes to Jamaica's national and the international discourse on how to aim and sustain the work of S&T development so as to improve living conditions in a developing nation.

The Realationship between Women Entrepreneurship and Family Socio-Economic in Rwanda.

다무스와뉴자비트리스 Park Chung Hee School of Policy and Saemaul of Yeu 2015 국내석사

ABSTRACT The study on the Relationship between Women Entrepreneurship and Family social Economic Development aimed at assessing whether there was a positive correlation between women in entrepreneurship and their family socio-economic development. The number of women all over the World is larger than the number of men, but their contribution in socio-economic development is still low especially in developing countries. The main Objective of this Research is to assess the contribution of women entrepreneurs on socio-economic development of their families and households. It was guided by six specific objectives: To identify challenges faced by women entrepreneurs and how they are addressed; To assess the drivers that influence women socio-economic development in Reba-Unyurwe cooperative and to highlight the correlation between entrepreneurship and socio-economic development; To analyze the main challenges faced by women in Kayonza District; To ascertain the mechanisms used by women’s Opportunity Center to empower women in Kayonza District and To establish the relationship between women empowerment and socio-economic development. This Research focused on women members of handcraft making cooperative in Muhanga District and Women’s Opportunity Center in Eastern Province (Rwanda) with a connection to Gahaya Links Company. The Research reviewed the studies related to women entrepreneurship and socio-economic development. The target population was 200 women members of craft making from Reba Unyurwe cooperative. The sample size was 67 People. The study used Stratified and Simple random sampling techniques. The Method used to carry out this quantitative and qualitative based study, was based on data collection Methods. To get the findings, quantitative and qualitative research was focused on both primary and secondary sources and data was collected through two primary data collection methods: Semi-structured questionnaire and interview guide. Primary qualitative data was collected by the use of the interview guide while primary quantitative data was gathered by the use of semi-structured questionnaires administered to the women members of Agaseke Handcraft Cooperative in Muhanga District, Southern Province. This research concluded that there was a positive and strong relationship between women entrepreneurship and family socio-economic development. The study revealed that women entrepreneurs affect social economic development at the rate of 78.3%. The research recommends that women entrepreneurs must minimize all loss caused by lack of training and low level of education that leads to lack of managerial skills in order to achieve high level of performance in their routine activities of business. Hence, the level of socio-economic development depends on the performance of their business. This study is significant to the Government of Rwanda for policy making purposes. The Government needs to promote women entrepreneurs by encouraging grassroots self-help efforts in several ways, including funding direct operations, training, and education and subsidiary activities of community groups.

한·중 여성 경력개발 비교 연구

양필완령 대진대학교 대학원 2013 국내석사

최근 이제까지 남성의 영역으로 인식되어 오던 분야에서 고위직에 이르며 두각을 나타내는 여성들이 증가하고 있다. 이러한 변화에도 불구하고 여성의 직장생활 참여는 아직도 미흡한 실정이다. 조사 결과에 의하면 2008년 현재 한국 여성의 경제활동 참가율은 54.7%로 OECD 국가 중 최하위권에 속하는 것으로 나타났다(OECD, 2008). 특히 대졸 이상의 취업률이 낮아 고급 여성인력의 활용도가 낮은 것이 문제이다. 게다가 결혼과 출산으로 인한 중도 퇴직이 기정사실로 받아들여지고, 여성의 승진이 제한되는 남성 중심의 조직문화 풍토 또한 문제로 지적되고 있다. 중국의 경우 사회주의 국가라는 환경의 차이로 조직의 고위직에 오른 여성의 비율이 한국보다 훨씬 높다(<표 Ⅲ-21>참조). 그런데 중국과 한국 상대적 차이만 있을 뿐 공통적인 부분이 많이 있다. 중국에서 여성인력을 효율적으로 활용하기 위한 여성 인적 자원 개발 정책은 아직 초기 단계에 머물고 있다. 중국의 개혁개방 이후에 시장경제 제도 및 정책을 운용함에 따라 중국 정부가 큰 잠재력을 지닌 여성인력을 낭비하지 않고 남녀평등을 실현하기 위하여 일련의 여성 인적 자원 개발 정책을 수립하였다. 그러나 중국 정부가 비록 많은 재취업 정책을 실시하더라도 재취업단계에서 취업 의지 및 재취업 성공률을 높이기 위한 재취업 여성 인적자원 개발 정책이 부족한 상태이고 정책의 실효성도 높지 않은 편이다. 본 연구는 여성 경력개발과 관계된 기존의 이론들을 정리해 보고, 이와 관련하여 한국과 중국 두 나라의 여성 경력개발과 관계된 국가 차원이 통계 데이터를 비교하여 정책의 시사점을 도출해 내는 데 연구의 목적이 있다. 여성 경력 개발에 대한 한국과 중국의 현황 자료 검토를 통해 다음 및 가지 문제점을 발견할 수 있다. 첫째, 문제의 핵심은 남성 중심의 차별 의식이 조직의 인적자원관리 과정에서의 차별로 이어진다는 점이다. 즉 여성들은 취업의 시장인 채용에서 고용의 벽에 부딪힌다. 이러한 문제는 한국의 경우 더욱 두드러진다. 즉 여성들의 경우 취업자의 다수가 비정규직인 ‘직종분리’의 차별을 받고 있다. 둘째, 여성들이 승진 및 인력개발 과정에 차별을 받고 있다. 이러한 경향은 한국과 중국 모두에 공통적으로 해당된다. 셋째, 한국의 경우 고위관리직 및 임원직 승진이 제한되어 경력이 정체되는 ‘유리천장’현상이 매우 심한 것으로 나타난 점에 유의할 필요가 있다. 중국의 경우 고위 관리직에서 여성이 상대적으로 적은 편이다. 넷째, 여성들은 결혼과 함께 임신, 출산 및 육아와 맞물려 퇴직을 강요당하는 사회문화적 압력을 받는 것으로 나타났으며, 이러한 경향은 한국이 더 심한 것으로 조사되었다. 이상의 문제점들로부터 여성의 경력개발 활성화를 위해 다음의 방안들이 추진되어야 할 것이다. 1) 기업을 비롯한 사회전반의 조직문화 혁신이 이루어져야 한다. 2) 인적자원관리 시스템의 혁신이 뒷받침되어야 한다. 3) 사회적 지원 체계의 확립이 요구된다. 4) 여성 자신의 자기계발 강화 노력이 필수적으로 요구된다. The careers development of women is the one of important purposes and duties of social integration and progress. By the way, female resources become vulnerable group in this society owing to the traditional concepts, social environment, women themselves. To fulfill the gender equality and integration of the society at large, the problems in careers development of women in our society have to be fully learned. There is sex discrimination in the workplace of Korea and China. There exists the prejudice that the place where women should be is home, or women are not high-quality human resources that need to be developed in the long term since the dedication of women to the organization is low in labor market. Thus it causes unemployment of women. Furthermore recently, the temporary severance of career caused by the childbirth and infant care makes women's reentry to the labor market fall behind or makes women give up getting jobs. And even though women get the jobs, they are less paid and are in a more disadvantageous position for the promotion than men. The logic which discriminate women in the labor market like this is that women lacks level of education and productivity in work training compared with men. But although women of their speciality have been being produed with the expansion of investment in education for women, they have been being sexually discriminated even in professional works. There are many cases that women should satisfy taking role of assistants of men. The study attempted to integrate relevant theories of career development for women. The analysis of current practices included the level of women's participation in the labor market, gender discrimination practices in human resource management systems, and the current status of corporate culture. The results were that the most critical barrier in the career development of women was men's negative attitudes toward women which were geared to discrimination practices in human resource management systems. This study reviewed the implications of the policies and drew the effective and rational policies or system in order to supplement current system through comparing current policies, supporting system, materials of National Statistical Office on resources development of women for career development of women in Korea and China based on the theory related to career development of women. Given the results and theories, strategies for improving career development of women were suggested. The strategies involved a variety of specific ways in terms of three levels: organizational, societal, and individual levels. Finally, implications and limitations of the study were presented.