Growth Borrowed from the Future : An Inquiry into South Korean Development and Social Reproduction Crisis

Narasya Emanuela Vidia 서강대학교 일반대학원 2024 국내석사

This paper attempts to conduct a theoretical inquiry and examine the South Korean social reproduction and reproductive crisis context. Starting from an initial inquiry about productive and reproductive work, this paper extends its analysis into the dynamic relation between capitalism and social reproduction, built upon a complex network of socio-economic processes. In the process, this paper drives upon one of feminist politics' discourses of social reproduction, which is Social Reproduction Theory (SRT) and pays attention to the necessary yet contradictory relation between social reproduction and capitalism, which eventually entails a social (reproduction) crisis or social reproductive contradictions of capitalism (Fraser, 2016). By utilising the SRT theoretical framework on social reproduction and the crisis of social reproduction, this paper goes on to analyse the root cause of the social reproduction crisis that prevails in South Korean society by taking a closer look at two historical moments: 1) The state-led development and industrialisation, and 2) The 1997-1998 Asian financial crisis. Throughout the analysis, this paper discovers a contradictory dynamic: South Korean capitalist developmental state and its economic goals stood in opposition to social reproduction. From this contradictory dynamic, contradictions happened and escalated into a social reproduction crisis prevailing in South Korea.

대학생은 어떻게 채무자가 되는가?

천주희 연세대학교 대학원 2015 국내석사

본 논문은 2000년 이후, 한국 대학가에 등장한 ‘학생-채무자’ 주체의 형성과정에 대해 탐구한다. 2000년 중반 이후, 한국 대학생들은 ‘등록금 인상, 학자금 대출 증가, 취업난’이라는 시대적 통증을 경험하고 있다. 이 시기 “대학 등록금 1,000만 원 시대”라는 말이 등장했고, 생활비와 학자금 대출금을 갚기 위해 아르바이트와 휴학을 하는 학생들이 증가했다. 대학을 졸업하더라도 위축된 노동시장으로, 안정적인 일자리를 얻기란 어려워졌으며 청년들의 경제적 빈곤화는 가속화되었다. 본 논문은 이러한 현상들을 부채의 관점에서 해석한다. 부채의 관점이란, 사회 재생산의 구조를 부채 메커니즘을 통해 설명하고, 빚지는 대학생들을 “채권-채무”관계에서 독해하는 일이다. 본 논문에서는 새로운 주체를 ‘학생-채무자’로 부른다. ‘학생-채무자’가 출현한다는 것은 이 사회가 고등교육영역을 부채를 통해 재생산하고 있으며, 대학생에게 ‘채무자로서의 삶’을 하나의 양식으로 요구하고 있음을 의미한다. 이때 개인은 노동시장에 진입하기 위해 대학에 진학하고, 재생산에 필요한 기술을 습득한다는 명분으로 빚지는 삶을 수용하는 주체가 된다. 연구 방법론은 심층면담을 통한 문화기술지로, 국내 4년제 대학(원)생 및 졸업생 19명이 연구에 참여했다. 논문 구성은 크게 세 부분으로 이루어져있다. 우선 1,2장에서는 2000년 전후로 한국사회에 ‘학생-채무자’가 출현하게 된 배경을 정치?경제?문화적 변화에서 살핀다. 이러한 변화에서 ‘학자금 대출’을 통해 금융부채가 고등영역과 대학(원)생 개인에게 확장되는 과정을 탐구한다. 다음으로, 3장에서는 1997년 말 “IMF 외환위기” 이후, 가족 재생산의 위기가 자녀의 대학교육에 대한 투자로 이어지는지 살펴보고, 이 과정에서 ‘대학’이라는 시공간이 생애기획에서 어떠한 위상을 차지하며 ‘학생-채무자’를 양산하는 과정으로 이어지는지 탐구한다. 마지막으로, 4,5장에서는 학자금 대출 및 금융부채가 일상이 된 개인에게 ‘채무자’ 주체성은 어떻게 형성되는지 살펴봄으로써, 생애기획에서 부채가 개인의 삶에 구축되는 과정을 비판적으로 사유한다. 본 논문에서는 2000년 전후로, 국가적 경제 위기와 가족 재생산의 위기를 해소하기 위한 전략으로 마련된 금융장치들이 ‘교육기회의 형평성’을 명목으로 대학생 집단을 채무자라는 새로운 금융주체로 만들고 있음을 주장한다. 그리고 이러한 제도?문화적 조건에서 대학생은 ‘학생-채무자’라는 새로운 주체의 형상으로 전환될 것을 요구받는다. 한국에서 대학생의 사회?문화적 위치는 가족에 예속된 존재 혹은 후기 청소년으로 분류되고는 했다. 그러나 학자금 대출이라는 금융계약 과정을 통해 대학생은 독립된 대출 계약자로 금융시장에 참여하게 된다. 그럼에도 불구하고 한국에서 정부에 의한 학자금 대출은 여전히 가족제도를 기반으로 이루어진다. 때문에 학자금 대출의 계약 주체가 학생임에도 부모의 직업과 계층이 대출 규모와 방식에 영향을 미치게 된다. 이때 대학생은 ‘학자금 대출’을 매개로 기존의 사적영역에서 고등교육비용을 부담해오던 ‘가족복지’형태에서 국가와 시장과 복지적 요구가 혼합된 ‘신자유주의 복지’형태로 이행하면서, 국가와 가족 사이에 끼어있는 주체로 출현한다. This thesis explores the formation of the “student-debtor” subject who began to appear on campuses after the year 2000. After 2005, South Korean college students began to experience phenomena distinctive to this era including “drastic tuition hikes, educational loan increases, and high unemployment.” During this period, which saw the appearance of the term, “The Era of $10,000 Tuition,” the number of students engaging in part-time work or taking time off school in order to pay loans for tuition or living expenses dramatically increased. With students finding it difficult to find stable employment after graduation due to the stagnant job market, their economic poverty has worsened. This thesis examines this phenomenon from the perspective of debt. In adopting this perspective, this thesis aims to explain the structures of social reproduction through the mechanism of debt; it also aims to “read” the lives of college students through “creditor-debtor” relations. This thesis identifies this new subject as “student-debtor.” The appearance of this subject suggests several things. It suggests the reproduction of education as a public sphere through debt; it also suggests the appearance of the “debtor life” of the college student as one of the requirements of this reproduction. That is, in order to enter the labor market, college students are required not only to cultivate their skills as workers and manage social risk but also embrace lives as debtors. The research method for this paper relied on ethnographic interviewing of 19 informants including students of undergraduate, master and doctoral degrees. The thesis is comprised of three parts. The first part examines the structural changes and political, economic, and cultural arrangements after the year 2000 when this “student-debtor” has emerged. It also explores the process through which financial debt has spread to the field of higher education and among the population of college students through the product of “tuition loan.” The second section explores how the national and family crisis from the late-1990s to the early 2000s has driven college students into the time-space of “college”―giving rise to the “student-debtor” subject. With the twin entities of “college student” and “family” becoming inseparable during this period, this section examines the meaning-making behind the debt for higher education―focusing, in particular, on the question of who claims this loan as “their debt.” Finally the third section provides a critical reflection of the relationship between life planning and debt by illuminating the process through which the subjectivity of “debtor” is constructed for the individual for whom tuition loans and financial debts have become a part of everyday life. Through the cultural ideology of “academic credentialism,” South Korean society has up to now emphasized the importance of higher education. It has also maintained a system that privatizes the costs of higher education through the administrative practice of making the “beneficiary of education” also responsible for its costs. Meanwhile, during the era of military dictatorship from the 1960s to 1980s characterized by the developmentalist state, academic credentialism was pivotal in the class mobility of individuals and reproduction of families. With academic degree the key basis of economic status after graduation, the developmentalist state has relied upon this cultural ideology to cultivate a highly educated industrial workforce and build its industrial base. However, after the 1990s, with the democratization of higher education and growing insecurity of the labor market, the work of recuperating one’s educational investment became more difficult. Despite this difficulty, “academic credentialism” managed to become re-strengthened after the “IMF” financial crisis and the corresponding crisis of familial reproduction in 1997 when it became viewed as the basic means for an individual and family to enter the labor market. On one hand, within a post-IMF context of a nearly absent educational welfare system either from the state or society and public criticism that people should not forfeit their right to education due to economic difficulty, there was a strong push for educational welfare. In order to address this issue of “equal opportunity for education,” the state has eased people’s access to financial debts. At the same time that college students and other low-income individuals―who used to be “non-financial” subjects―faced fewer restrictions to accessing credit cards, tuition loans also became widely promoted. Through encouraging “tuition loans” as one of the financial products within the high education field, the state simultaneously quelled the widespread public demand for educational welfare. Within this thesis, I argue that the financial instruments that were put in place in order to overcome the crisis of nation and family are instead―in the name of “equal access to educational opportunities”―creating college students as new financial subjects of debtors. That is, through applying for a tuition loan, a new financial subject who is able to freely enter contracts is emerging. Within South Korea, however, the different paths for applying for a student loan and the question of whether it will be accepted or rejected are still dependent on a number of factors within the family system such as the parents’ profession, their economic status, and their willingness to embrace a loan. Within this transition from a “family welfare” system―in which the costs of higher education expenses within the previous private sphere are borne by the family through the “tuition loan”―to a “neoliberal welfare” model comprised of the multiple demands of state, market, and welfare, the college student becomes a subject caught between the state and family.

청소년 문화자본, 자아개념, 학업성취 간의 관계 분석 : 구조방정식 모형을 중심으로

문지영 연세대학교 교육대학원 2018 국내석사

This study aims to verify the dynamics of social reproduction in Korean society with Bourdieu’s concept of cultural capital, by identifying the relations among student’s cultural capital, self-concept and educational attainment. While demonstrating the effects of the social-economic status of the parents on student’s educational attainment, this study considered the influence of the cultural activities, which presents one of the three kinds of measures that DiMaggio(1982) built, into student’s general self-concept as habitus, to investigate the micro and complex process of cultural capital. Furthermore, it also intended to find out the cultural activity factor which influences the growth of student’s self-concept. According to the purpose, The measure of variables for this research consisted of the social-economic status of parents, educational attainment and two variables for measuring cultural capital, the level of participation in cultural activities and self-concept of students. Researcher used a total of 1,302 data from the 4th, 5th, 6th, and 7th survey of the 4th grade panels of the Korean Children & Youth Panel Survey. Structural equation modeling analysis and latent growth modeling analysis were conducted through the AMOS 25 program. The results of analyzing the structural equation model are as follows. The activity factors of cultural capital have a positive effect on a student’s self-concept and educational attainment. In the third year of junior high school to senior high school, the self-concept of a student with greater participation in cultural activities has been higher than that of a student who does not. Meanwhile, reading activity factors measured in a week's reading session were found to have a positive effect on a student's level of self-concept, but did not have a significant effect on educational achievement. Also, the SES has a significant influence on educational attainment through the activity factors of cultural capital and the self-concept. In the second research of this study, which analyzed the latent growth model, participation in cultural activities was found to change students’ self-concept by tracking the activity factors of cultural capital that affect the trend of self-concept change. The self-concept decreased from 7th grade to 9th grade, and showed no change between 9th grade and 10th grade. Students who actively participate in cultural activities in 7th grade had a higher sense of self-concept in their 7th grade. In addition, students with high self-concept showed a low rate of decline over time. In other words, students who developed high self-concept through their substantial cultural participation in the 7th grade may also have a positive effect on the change in self-concept they experience as they grow up. Based on the results of the study, this study suggests an educational approach to promote participation in cultural activities through various cultural activity programs during the teenage years prior to the 7th grade through linkage with schools or local community resources, which could help ease the cumulative disadvantage over cultural participation, initial self-concept building and educational transition. It is also suggested the further research based on comprehensive reading activity factor. This study considered only the amount of reading hours, however, reading activity indicators may include a variety of activities such as students’ preference for reading or books, interest in reading, taste and type of reading, discussion or essay writing activities based on reading, etc. If further studies of these comprehensive reading activities are conducted, it is possible to discuss effective educational approached through the activation of reading programs for students in an environment where it is realistically difficult to participate in cultural activities. 본 연구는 Bourdieu의 문화재생산 이론을 바탕으로 청소년이 발달 과정에서 경험하는 다양한 문화활동이 자아개념을 매개하여 문화자본으로서 학업성취에 미치는 영향을 보다 폭넓은 구조적 관점으로 검증하고자 하였다. 문화․독서 활동으로 구성된 문화자본의 활동요인이 실질적으로 체화된 문화자본으로서의 일반 자아개념으로 이어져 부모의 사회경제적 지위와 학업성취를 매개하는 관계를 분석하고, 나아가 문화자본의 활동요인과 자아개념이 시간의 흐름에 따라 어떠한 영향을 미치며 변화하는지에 대한 논의를 통해 최종적으로 자아개념에 영향을 줄 수 있는 문화자본의 활동요인을 제시하고자 하였다. 연구는 한국아동‧청소년패널조사(Korean Children & Youth Panel Survey)의 초등학교 4학년 패널의 4차, 5차, 6차, 7차 조사 데이터를 활용하여 총 1,302개의 자료를 기준으로 분석을 진행하였고, 종단분석이 필요한 단계에서는 결측치를 제외한 1,239개의 자료만을 포함하였다. 분석은 SPSS 24.0 프로그램을 이용하여 주요 변수들의 기술통계 및 빈도분석을 하였고 AMOS 25 프로그램을 통해 구조방적식 분석과 잠재성장모형 분석을 실시하였다. 연구를 통해 부모의 사회경제적 지위가 학생의 문화자본 활동요인과 자아개념을 거쳐 학업성취에 미치는 영향이 유의미한 것으로 밝혀져 가족의 배경변수가 문화자본을 통해 학생의 학업성취에 영향을 미쳐 사회 계급재생산의 기제로서 작용한다는 Bourdieu의 문화재생산 이론을 경험적으로 검증하였다. 또한 학생의 자아개념이 중학교 1학년에서 3학년이 되며 감소하고, 중학교 3학년에서 고등학교 1학년 사이에는 변화가 나타나지 않는 발달 궤적을 나타냄을 확인하였다. 자아개념의 변화 모형에 영향을 미치는 문화자본 활동요인을 추적한 결과 문화활동 요인이 학생 자아개념 변화의 예측요인으로 작용하는 것으로 나타났다. 이상의 연구결과를 종합하여 다음과 같은 성과와 교육적 시사점을 제시하였다. 첫째, 부모의 경제자본과 가정의 문화자본을 기반으로 축적한 풍부한 문화 및 독서활동 경험은 학생의 학업성취에 직접적인 영향을 주기도 하지만, 문화자본의 활동요인이 자아개념 수준을 매개하여 최종적으로 교육적 성취 결과에도 영향을 미친다는 것을 확인하였다. 부모의 사회경제적 지위가 학업성취로 이어지는 Bourdieu의 문화재생산 이론의 영향 경로를 보다 세분화하여 검증한데 그 의의가 있다. 둘째, 중학교 이전~초기의 풍부한 문화활동 경험이 긍정적인 청소년 자아개념과 높은 학업성취의 달성에 중요한 영향을 주는 요인으로 작용한다는 점에서 이에 대한 교육적 시사점을 제시하였다. 학교 내 문화활동 프로그램이나 지역 사회와의 연계를 통해 문화활동 참여의 활성화를 도모하여 가정 배경의 차이에서 기인하는 문화활동의 결핍과 이로 인한 청소년 초기 자아개념 수준, 나아가 학업 성취로 이어지는 구조적 격차를 완화할 수 있을 것으로 기대한다. 마지막으로, 연구에서 제한적으로 다루어졌던 독서활동 요인에 대한 추가 연구의 필요성을 제시하였다. 독서활동 요인으로 학생의 독서나 책에 대한 선호, 독서 취미 여부, 고차사고력을 도모할 수 있는 독서 바탕의 토론이나 논술 활동, 서적의 분야별 독서 빈도 등의 다양한 요인이 포함될 수 있는 바, 추후 연구에서 포괄적 독서활동에 대한 연구를 바탕으로 그 효과를 확인할 수 있다면, 향후 현실적으로 문화활동 참여가 제한된 환경에의 학생들에 대한 독서 프로그램의 활성화를 통한 효과적인 교육적 접근이 가능할 것으로 기대한다.

신상류계층의 사회자본을 통한 계급재생산

조아라 연세대학교 대학원 2005 국내석사

본 논문은 한국 사회의 계급구조가 공고화 되어 가는 시점에서 신상류층이 계급을 재생산하는데 있어 사회관계망을 어떻게 활용하는지에 대해 알아보고자 한다. 그 중에서도 특히 본 논문은 비공식 연결망의 참여를 통해 살펴보는 것을 목적으로 한다. 경제의 지속적인 성장은 새롭게 출현한 산업 및 직업의 영향으로 계층 간의 스펙트럼을 새로이 형성하였고, 이에 기존의 계층분류는 더 세분화되었다. 상류층은 과도한 경제성장과 그 결과물의 가장 큰 수혜자라 해도 과언이 아니다. 6,70년대의 급속한 산업화는 순식간에 부의 축적을 가능하게 했고, 이와 같은 성장의 물결 속에서 전문직 종사자들이 양적으로나 질적으로 증가하는데 기여했다. 또한 90년대 벤처의 바람은 새로운 형태의 부르주아를 탄생시켰다. 이러한 과정을 통해 부를 획득한 이들은 상류층이라는 이름으로 자리매김하게 되는데 본 연구자가 주목하는 것이 바로 이들이다. 즉 전통적 부자로 불려지는 최상류층이 아닌 한국의 경제발전과 더불어 개인의 노력을 통해 상류층이 된 이들이다. 본 논문에서는 이들을 신(新)상류층이라고 정의할 것이다. 최상류층의 재생산이 이들이 태어나면서부터 가지고 있는 물적 기반에 영향 받는 측면이 강했다면 신상류층의 경우는 중산층에서 계급 상승하였거나 기존의 생산수단을 더 확장시킴으로서 형성되었다는 측면에서 이들의 성장과 계급공고화에는 속성적 측면, 즉 누구의 아들이나 어떤 집안의 출신이라는 것보다는 관계적 측면에서의 모색이 필요하다고 여겨진다. 따라서 본 논문에서는 사회적 관계를 통해 유무형의 가치를 창출할 수 있는 사회자본의 개념이 신상류층을 연구하는데 필요하다고 보고 이를 위해 신상류층으로 분류할 수 있는 이들의 사회적 연결망을 살펴볼 것이다. 그 중에서도 본 논문이 주목하는 것은 비공식 연결망이다. 공식 연결망이 주로 목적 달성을 위한 비자발적 결사체라는 점에 비추어 봤을 때, 비공식 연결망은 보다 자발적이고 상호 친밀한 대면적 접촉에 기반한다. 또한 빈번한 접촉을 통해 그들 간의 신뢰를 형성하고 정보를 교환하며 그것을 통해 이득을 얻는 일련의 상호작용 과정을 포함한다. 이러한 과정을 통하여 개인은 자신의 계급을 확대하거나 재생산한다. 따라서 공식 연결망이 갖고 있는 긍정적 측면도 분명 존재하겠지만 비공식 연결망을 통해 얻어지는 관계의 형성이 신상류층의 지위를 고착화하는데 실제적인 영향을 미치고 있고 향후 그 정도가 더 커질 것이라는 측면에서 연구의 필요성은 크다고 할 수 있다. 연구 결과, 비공식 연결망의 형성에 있어서 초기 단계는 공식 연결망을 통해 파생되는 경우가 많았지만 이후에 더 친밀한 비공식 연결망으로 발전하거나 이를 토대로 새로운 목적에 기반한 보다 실질적인 유무형의 이익을 기대할 수 있는 사회자본으로 확대시키는 것을 알 수 있었다. 비공식 연결망을 통한 관계맺음은 심리적 안정감과 동시에 소속감을 부여한다. 또한 불신의 사회에 놓여있는 개인에게 사회 지위 유지에 이익을 준다. 권력 있는 집단의 성원이라는 자부심이 계급 내 지위를 공고화 하는데 도움을 주기 때문이다. 비공식 연결망을 통하여 얻는 가장 큰 혜택은 새로운 정보의 원천이 된다는 점이다. 일상적 상호작용 속에서 자연스럽게 얻어지는 정보뿐만 아니라 학습을 위한 배움의 장으로 활용되기도 한다. 이러한 물질적, 비물질적 교환관계의 일련의 과정은 관계의 확장이라는 사회자본적 측면에서 나아가 계급 범주를 공고화하는 역할을 한다. Korea social class structure is becoming firmly constructed, so this thesis is looking at how social network is used in reproducing new upper class. Most importantly the purpose of this study is to look at participation through informal social network. The continuous economic growth, newly invented industry that has created new business and jobs have lately formed spectrum through class, which is furthering the classification of previous class system. Upper class was the prime beneficiary of the excessive economic growth. The rapid industrialization of the 1960''s and 70''s enabled accumulation of wealth in a short time and also contributed in the increase of professional in quantity and quality. Moreover the new wave of venture- business has produced another form of bourgeois. In the course of this process who could gather wealth are being classified as upper class. They became upper class by their own effort and along with the economic growth of Korea, which differentiates them from the traditional rich families of the upper class. In this study they will be defined as new upper class. If the reproduction of upper-upper class was possible through already formed wealth background, in other words by being born into a certain family, the experience of new upper class is different. The new upper class is produced by climbing up the ladder from middle class or from expanding their existing means of life. It is important to examine and observe the relationships formed and how this influence, reproduce and reinforce the structure of the upper class. Therefore it needs to look at how social network generates through social capital theory. Especially this study gives importance in the informal social network. Formal network is goal oriented and non-voluntary association while informal network is based on mutual relationships of people and more voluntarily. Overall it provides interaction process where profit is made during frequent contact; trust is formed and information exchanged. And throughout this process individuals expand or reproduce ones social statues. Hence, it is true that formal network provides positive benefits however it is clear that the relationships formed through informal network gives actual influence in sustaining and reinforcing new upper class''s social status. Also much importance is given in this study because it is estimated that this influence will be greater in the future. The result of the study indicates that in the formation of informal social network, in the beginning it is done mainly through formal network however it develops into close informal network and based on this it extends into social capitals where moral and materiel asset can be expected. Relationships formed through informal network offer psychological relieve and feeling of belonging. Also it helps individuals to maintain their social status in a society by giving them the pride of being a member of a prestige group. The biggest gain from informal network is the new source of information. It becomes a place and a meeting point for education and information is shared and collected through natural interaction. Thus, through this process of immaterial and material exchanges, relationship is formed and expanded and besides from being social capital it reinforces the social structure.

Status and Social Reproduction in Pindar's Epinician Odes

Miller, Caitlin Lenore The University of Chicago ProQuest Dissertations & 2023 해외박사(DDOD)

This dissertation argues that Pindar's epinician odes, composed in the first half of the fifth century BCE, functioned as both ideology and practice in attempting to stabilize, legitimize, and perpetuate the social status of Pindar's patrons and their families. It reads the extant epinician odes as the evidence of sociocultural practices and discourses of the fifth century BCE, and shows that predecessors, contemporaries, and later receivers of Pindaric epinician in antiquity saw the practice of athletic commemoration and epinician poetry itself as participants in fundamental sociopolitical discourses with high stakes for the well-being of social communities. A critical contemporary role of this poetic form was to naturalize the potentially unstable statuses of elites across the Greek world, under a variety of forms of political organization. In order to argue that the social status of elites was both naturally legitimate and diachronically durable, the epinicians represent inborn arete as a ground for physical ability, health, and achievement, which is equated with social and moral value. They consistently narrativize sexuality and childbirth as subject to a system of social regulation and surveillance that supports a narrow definition of reproductive norms and the importance of both material and social inheritance. In their self-conscious reference to their own composition and performance, the poems represent themselves as active participants in, and creators of, the norms of a restricted elite social discourse that both limits and defines the possible investments of their potential audiences. In the metaphors that the odes use to describe their victors, their own nature as cultural products, and the relationship of the poet to his laudandi, the poet and his poems are embedded in contemporary social institutions that served elite interests and interconnections. Ultimately, the odes strive to create an audience that is invested in their own reproduction and perpetuation, alongside the social institutions and forms on which their value system relies.

진·변한 목곽묘의 장례 현장 연구 : 신체의 주체화와 사회 재생산을 중심으로

김진오 서울대학교 대학원 2020 국내석사

목관묘군이 성행하던 진·변한 지역에서 기원후 2세기 후반 경 목곽묘의 출현은 탁월한 부장유물과 입지를 갖춘 대형묘의 등장으로서 많은 주목을 받아왔다. 이는 목관묘 단계에 비해 더욱 계층화된 사회구조와 무력·경제력을 갖춘 강력한 수장권이 반영된 결과로 설명되고는 있으나, 무덤 자료를 사회구조가 반영된 그림자 정도로 간주함으로써 정태적이고 생명력 없는 설명에 그쳤다는 점에서 보완의 여지를 남겨두었다. 보완의 시도는 실제 물질문화를 만들었던 인간 주체에 대한 관심으로 나타났으며, 무덤에 반영된 의도를 추론하는 방식으로 시도되었다. 그러나 고고자료로부터 특수한 의도를 추론해내기란 어려운 일이었으며, 능동적 개인의 의도를 장기적 변화와 연결시키기 어렵다는 한계 또한 보여주었다. 상기 연구들은 무덤 자료에 반영된 저 바깥의 ‘다른 무엇’에 초점을 맞추었다. 이와는 달리, 본 논문은 인간 주체가 있었던 장례 현장이었다는 시각에서 무덤 자료를 다룰 것을 제안한다. 장례 현장에 있었던 신체는 현장의 물질적 조건에 영향을 받아 ‘특정한 지식’을 지닌 주체로 ‘주체化’되며, 강압 없이도 주체가 특정한 방향으로 길러진다는 점에서 주체화는 ‘훈육적 권력’이라고 할 수 있다. 주체화는 인간 주체가 사물 객체를 만들고, 사물 객체는 또 다시 인간 주체를 만드는 연쇄 작용을 가능케 하며, 같은 세대 및 후속 세대의 주체들과 ‘지식의 사회적 저장고’가 공유·전승되는 방식을 통해 개별 주체의 생애를 넘어서까지 계속된다. 이 연쇄 작용은 앞선 사회적·물질적 조건이 여기서 수행된 주체화의 중개를 통해 후속 양상으로 나타나는 ‘재생산’의 과정이다. 본 논문은 이러한 시각을 바탕으로, 2세기 후반 경 출현한 목곽묘의 여러 특징들은 신체의 주체화를 매개로 앞선 단계의 조건이 재생산된 결과이자, 이것 자체가 신체의 주체화를 통해 후속 단계의 재생산을 가능케 한 조건이었음을 제안하였다. 진·변한 전역에서 목관묘군은 구릉 말단부나 사면에 입지하였다. 무덤들은 대체로 좁고 깊은 묘광을 지니고 있었으며, 이는 탁월한 부장 양상을 보이는 무덤들도 마찬가지이다. 다만 부장품이 탁월한 일부 목관묘는 조성 당시 선축 무덤들과 어느 정도의 간격을 유지한 양상이 확인된다. 실용 철기들은 모두 제 형태를 유지한 상태로 부장되었으나, 일부 표비에서는 과장과 장식의 경향이 보이기도 한다. 2세기 후반 경부터는 탁월한 부장 양상의 대형묘가 조성된 목곽묘군이 출현했다. 탁월한 부장 양상을 보이는 무덤들은 묘광이 넓고 얕아졌으며, 표비 이외에도 형태가 과장된 철기와 토기가 다량으로 부장되었다. 특히 일부 유적의 경우는 대형묘가 주능선을 따라 배치된 양상도 확인된다. 목관묘는 좁고 깊은 묘광으로 인해 매납 현장에서 과시의 효과는 크지 않았던 것으로 보인다. 다만 장지로의 이동 과정에서 장송 행렬을 통해 과시가 이루어졌을 수는 있다. 탁월한 무덤 주변의 넓은 공간은 매납 당시 많은 사람들이 묘광 주변에 있었음을 암시하며, 좁고 깊은 묘광의 특성은 묘광 가까이에 있는 사람들과 그렇지 못한 사람들 사이의 공간 구분을 만들어냈을 가능성이 있다. 이는 집단 간 구분을 체감하도록 장례 현장에 있던 신체를 주체화시킴으로써 특정 집단의 우위를 인정하도록 만드는 ‘훈육적 권력’으로 작용했을 것이다. 이렇게 만들어진 주체들이 권위를 인정받은 자의 무덤 축조에 자발적으로 동참함에 따라 더 많은 노동력이 투입된 무덤 축조가 가능해졌고, 이는 2세기 후반 경 목곽묘의 등장으로 이어졌다. 한편, 장지로의 이동과 내려 묻기에 대한 경험은 죽음을 이동 및 경계성으로 이해하도록 신체를 주체화하였고, 그 결과 실용도구이면서도 장식이 붙거나 형태가 과장되어 실제로는 사용할 수 없는 ‘경계적’ 물건의 부장으로 이어졌다. 대형 목곽묘의 얕고 넓은 묘광, 과장된 유물, 과시적 매납, 장지로의 이동 과정에서 있었을 법한 퍼레이드 등은 특정 집단의 권위를 인정하도록 해당 현장에 있던 신체를 주체화하였을 것이다. 또한 주능선 정상을 따라 대형묘가 배치된 목곽묘군의 경우, 주능선 정상이라는 공간적 제약은 매납 현장에 입장 가능한 자와 그렇지 못한 자 사이의 공간 분리를 통해 집단 간 구분을 보다 강력하게 체감하도록 만들었을 가능성이 있다. 목곽묘 출현 이후 고총 단계까지 수장급 무덤에 투입된 노동력은 점차 증가하는 양상을 보여주는데, 이는 ‘훈육적 권력’이 주체들로 하여금 자발적으로 계층 구분을 받아들여 무덤 조성에 참여하도록 만들었음을 암시한다. 이처럼 2세기 후반 출현한 목곽묘 장례 현장은 신체의 주체화와 지식의 사회적 저장고를 매개로 장기간에 걸쳐 이루어진 사회 재생산 과정의 결과이자 조건이었던 것이다. 좁고 깊은 목관묘에 칠기나 동경을 매납하며 장례를 치르던 집단이 다량의 철기가 부장된 대형 목곽묘를 거쳐 거대한 고총을 축조하는 집단으로까지 이르게 된 데에는 전쟁, 교역, 문화 전파, 기술 발전, 생산력 증대 등과 더불어 장례 현장에서의 신체의 주체화와 이를 통한 사회 재생산 과정도 기여한 바가 있었을 것이다. The advent of Wooden Container Graves 木槨墓 from the late 2nd century in southeastern part of the Korean Peninsula, the polities of which were called Jinhan and Byeonhan in contemporary Chinese literature, has attracted much attention because of their expanded size, extravagant grave goods, and superior locations. These graves have generally been explained as representing greater intensification in social hierarchy and an emphasis on leadership based on military and economic power compared to the preceding period, but such explanations are static and lifeless, treating burial data as mere reflections of that which is abstract. Meanwhile, there have been some efforts to pay attention to the issue of the human subject, who actually made the artefacts, by making inferences on the intention represented by the burial data. However, reading specific intention from material data is very difficult and it is not clear how one may explain long term history from individual intention. The above mentioned approaches pay attention to ‘something else’ out there, represented by burial data. On the other hand, I suggest that they can be approached as ‘funerary time-space’, which was inhabited by human subjects and where funerary practices took place. Human bodies were affected by the material conditions of the time-space and subjectified in a specific way, which can also be called ‘disciplinary power’ because it requires no violence or coercion. The mediation of subjectification enables the dynamic cycle of ‘the subject makes the object’, ‘the object makes the subject’, ‘the subject makes the object again’, and so forth. This cycle continues beyond the individual lifetime through the sharing and transmission of the ‘social stock of knowledge.’ This cycle is a process of ‘reproduction’, through which preceding social and material conditions enable the following situations, by the mediation of subjectification. In reference to this, I suggest here that features of the Wooden Chamber Graves from the late 2nd century were not only the reproduction of their preceding conditions, but also the conditions which enabled their following situations, by the mediation of human subjectification. In the Jin-Byeonhan Region, Wooden Coffin Graves 木棺墓, which had been the common type of burial prior to the Wooden Container Graves, are located in groups on almost flat or slightly inclined slopes. They have quite uniformly narrow and deep grave pits, even those with superior deposited items. But the ones in which superior items were deposited maintained a distance from the earlier graves located nearby. Among the grave goods, weapons and tools were not modified from their practical forms, with the exception of some horse bits whose forms were modified in an ostentatious manner by adding decorations. In the late 2nd century, Wooden Container Graves of a superior nature emerged, which have shallower and wider grave pits, ostentatious and decorated weapons (in addition to horse bits), and large tools and potteries in large numbers, emerged. Some sites show a pattern in which superior graves were located along the top of a ridge. The narrow and deep grave pit and plain grave goods of Wooden Coffin Graves may have limited the possibilities of display. But some display might have been possible during the funerary procession. The wide space that existed around the graves yielding superior artifacts implies the presence of many people during the interment process – a narrow and deep pit might have facilitated a distinction between those who were close to the grave and those who were far from it. It could have subjectified the body into accepting the distinction, operating as a form of ‘disciplinary power’ which led them to approve or accept the authority of others. As these subjects offered their labour for the funeral of the approved authorities, the construction of graves with greater labour expenditure became possible, which enabled the advent of Wooden Container Graves in the late 2nd century. Meanwhile, the experience of a funerary procession and the lowering of the coffin might have subjectified human bodies into interpreting death as transition and liminality. It might have made bury tools and weapons with excessive ostentation but little practical utility, which are ‘liminal’. The shallower and wider grave pit, ostentation, display, and parade during the funerary procession which took place at the funerary time-space of Wooden Container Graves might have also subjectified human bodies into accepting the authority of others. In the case of graves located on the top of a ridge, the limited space of the ridge could have made human bodies to accept the distinction in more intensified way through the separation of the ones allowed to enter the burial place and the ones not allowed. After the advent of Wooden Container Graves the labour expenditure for chiefly graves continued to increase, which suggests that ‘disciplinary power’ made human bodies to accept the social distinction and offer their labor. The funerary time-space of Wooden Container Graves in the late 2nd century was both the result and condition of social reproduction which operated in a long time scale through the mediation of human subjectification and the social stock of knowledge. Along with war, trade, diffusion, technological innovation, productive capacity increase and many other factors, social reproduction through the body’s subjectification in a funerary time-space context might have also contributed to the long term historical process in which a society that buried its dead chief in a small grave pit with a few grave goods came to use a larger Wooden Container Grave, rich in grave goods, and became a society with much more laborious graves from then on.

Reactive Control: Development, Governance, and Social Reproduction in Thailand's Regimes of Labor Migration

Palmgren, Pei Anthony ProQuest Dissertations & Theses University of Cali 2022 해외박사(DDOD)

This dissertation is a comparative ethnography of labor migration governance in Thailand. Drawing from 17 months of multi-sited ethnographic fieldwork between 2015 and 2019, a period of intensified guestwork formalization, the study explores a puzzle unexamined in migration governance literature typically focused on the global North: why does one state advance divergent regimes to regulate and reproduce the same type of migrant labor? While migration regime models based on national immigration policy frameworks would point to regulatory differences by skill category, I examine the contrasting ways a state governs low-wage, “low-skill” migrant workers between sites. I use a multiscalar framework to compare subnational regimes of labor migration along three key dimensions: developmental (political economic influences on policy), regulatory (governance relations and practices), and reproductive (structures of social reproduction).Findings are based on participant observation in migrant rights organizations and in-depth interviews with migrant workers from Myanmar, Thai state officers, employers, and documentation brokers in Samut Sakhon, a site hosting guestworkers with labor rights and benefits in the seafood supply chain, and in the Tak border zone, where garment and agriculture workers are contained at the country’s periphery with limited rights. I argue that the state reacts to multiple external pressures on how it governs guestwork with limited control capacity and in relation to local circumstances, resulting in varied policies and subnational governance practices that differentially regulate and shape the social reproduction of labor in different locations. I show that the state’s responses to concurrent pressures reinforce distinct regimes exhibiting varying emphases on temporal and spatial logics of control.Following a global trend toward temporary migrant labor systems, the Thailand case illuminates labor migration governance in migrant receiving contexts of the global South. The dissertation theorizes such governance by identifying the developmental determinants of guestwork policies, the sources and outcomes of informal brokerage as a regulatory institution in migration infrastructures, and the divergent structures of social reproduction that supply precarious migrant labor for production. More broadly, the project makes contributions to the understanding of state power and the “many hands” of the state in a changing and varied development context.

Captive Economies: Social Reproduction, Commodification, and Settler Colonialism in the Northeast 1630-1763

Jahnke Wegner, Joanne Marie ProQuest Dissertations & Theses University of Minn 2020 해외박사(DDOD)

Captivity was a ubiquitous part of warfare in the colonial northeast from 1630 to 1763. English colonists and Native polities took captives for cultural, socio-economic, and political purposes. Historians have tended to discuss these two systems of captivity separately, focusing on either Indian captivity (which refers to Euro-American colonists taken captive by Indians) or Native enslavement (which refers to Euro-American capture and enslavement of Native peoples). The source bases contribute to this division as a focus on the captivity narrative literature produced by redeemed Euro-American captives allows for a ready retelling of the white captive experience, while the fragmented archive of Native enslavement complicates historical recovery of the Native captivity experience. This dissertation seeks to bridge this gap by drawing upon records from colonial assemblies, colonial and town legal records, local histories, treaties and treaty minutes, captivity narratives, letters, journals, diaries, early modern engravings, maps, English and Native material culture, and built structures like town animal pounds to put these two types of captivity into conversation. This comparative approach studies the intersection and evolution of these two systems to better understand how they mutually informed and transformed each other, leading to the development of multiple captive trade systems that circulated captives throughout New England, into French Canada, and into the Atlantic world. This dissertation telescopes between the macro and the micro to understand how English, French, and Native polities deployed different regimes of value to captive bodies to send or sell Native or English colonists into captivity. In the seventeenth century, English colonists and their Native allies increasingly competed over Native captives as an extension of quests for sovereignty and geo-political power. By King Philip’s War, English colonists used a process of human commodification to turn captive Natives into slaves, adding a layer of fungibility to already valuable captives. Native peoples responded in various ways: some adopted English habits of mind and added more economic import to already valuable bodies while others took English colonists captive to use for labor or as leverage for diplomacy. Regardless of which regime of value they applied to captives, English and Native captors both viewed them as vital for the social reproduction of their respective societies, making captive women in particular central to the captivity complex because of the valuable labor they performed. The captive trade systems that developed had a lop-sided effect, however, as English captive taking decimated Native populations in the service of claiming Native lands to plant and Native bodies to labor.By the eighteenth century, as the French made their presence known in the northeast, Native Americans would extend their captive taking to include more English colonists as part of power diplomacy. Native peoples who found their political economies devastated by imperial warfare, loss of land, demographic catastrophes, and fluctuations in the Atlantic trade economy viewed English colonists as a commodity to sell the French to sustain their families and communities. By working at the intersection of captivity, settler colonialism, human commodification, gender, and social reproduction, this dissertation complicates current understandings of the processes of English colonization and Native perseverance, Native dispossession and enslavement, and the evolution of human fungibility in one corner of the Atlantic world.

Women's Perspectives on the Underrepresentation of Women in California Leadership Positions in Kinesiology

Ramirez, Denise Michelle California State University, Fresno ProQuest Disse 2020 해외박사(DDOD)

This study explored women kinesiologists’ perspectives on the underrepresentation of women in leadership positions of kinesiology in California. Studies on women in leadership suggest that stereotyping and gender bias may limit opportunities for women, especially in a hard science field such as kinesiology. The very few studies that document the experiences of women kinesiologists or other women in higher education leadership in the United States were conducted in the Midwest and on the east coast. There is a gap in the literature; women kinesiologists in California have been overlooked.This qualitative, narrative inquiry study was guided by two research questions, through the lenses of Pierre Bourdieu, social role theory, and social reproduction theory:1. How do women kinesiologists view career opportunities in kinesiology regarding gender equity?2. How do women kinesiologists’ perceptions of gender bias impact their career decisions, goals, and choices?Twelve women kinesiologists who held a current or past position of leadership in a California higher education institution shared their personal stories of their careers in kinesiology. Semi-structured interviews were conducted in person, over iiithe telephone, via Zoom, and through email. In response to seven questions and an open-ended invitation, participants shared their perceptions and experiences regarding how they viewed career opportunities in kinesiology regarding gender equity and how gender bias may have impacted their career decisions, goals, and choices. Analysis of the narratives in a framework of the social positioning, social role, and social reproduction theories led to two primary overarching themes—sports culture and personal limitations—and five related themes: work-life balance, family obligations, lack of role models, stereotyping, and “good ol’ boys club.” An unexpected finding was that the culture of a geographic region may significantly influence career opportunities and experiences for women kinesiologists.

Theories of social reproduction and student resistance in Jamaica, West Indies

Rhone, Angela Eleanor U.M.I 1987 국내박사