(The) association between occupational hazard exposures and health inequality among Korean employees

조성식 서울대학교 대학원 2018 국내박사

Abstract Introduction From birth to retirement, living conditions substancially influence health. Unfair social relationships have created a social environment in which persons with low socioeconomic status (SES) could be exposed to more harmful living conditions. Working conditions and employment status significally affect health in the economically active ages. Joining in the labor market can have a positive impact on health; conversely, working might mean more exposure to harmful working conditions. Work is the main source of income for most people. Occupations have linkages to social status; people’s self-esteem could be affected by their jobs and the workplace is an important place for making social relationships in adulthood. On the other hand, work is associated with various exposures which can be harmful to health. Employees could be exposed to physical, chemical, ergonomic, and psycho-social hazards by joining the labor market, and workers in low socioeconomic status have a higher tendency to work in harmful working conditions. These unequal exposures to occupational risk factors among different occupations could be an important pathway to understanding health inequality. Since the publication of the Whitehall Study II, the majority of studies investigated health inequalities linked with psychosocial risk factors in the workplace. Health inequality can be explained by different levels of exposures to psychosocial factors including low job control, job strain, effort-reward imbalance, organizational injustice. The link between psychosocial working conditions and health inequality has been extensively studied in European countries. The interest in psychosocial working conditions reflected the social circumstances of post-industrialized society. The decrease in the numbers of workers in traditional industries such as manufacturing decreased the number of workers exposed to traditional occupational hazards such as noise and ergonomic strains. However, according to surveys on working conditions in both Korea and EU countries, significant proportions of workers are exposed to traditional occupational hazards and are working in dangerous working circumstances which are prone to industrial accidents and toxic exposure. Furthermore, in Korea industrial accidents and intoxications are much more frequent than in European countries due to the improper implementation of safety and health regulations at the workplace. Several studies of European countries investigated health inequalities which are related to occupational hazard exposures including physical, chemical, and ergonomic risk factors. Yet, health inequality related to physical, chemical, and ergonomic occupational hazard exposures have been insufficiently explored, particularly in Korea. Considering the situation mentioned above, broad working conditions, including workplace safety as well as physical, chemical, biological, ergonomic, and psychosocial hazards, need to be investigated as factors generating health inequality, particularly in working ages. Chapter 1 Objectives: The purpose of the chapter was to assess exposure to occupational hazards across different occupations and the contribution of occupational exposures to poor self-rated health (SRH) and work-related injury. Methods: Employees from the sample of the Third Korean Working Conditions Survey (KWCS) were the study population. Survey weighted chi-square tests and multiple survey logistic analyses were undertaken for statistical analysis. A DAG (Directed Acyclic Diagram) was employed to identify the minimal sufficient adjustment set. Results: For most occupational hazards, the gradient of exposures were observed. Higher proportions of employees in a low SES were exposed to occupational hazards. Occupatinal hazard exposures incresed the risk of poor self-rated health and work-related injury. Conclusions: Occupational hazard exposure could be linked to health inequality among Korean employees. Chapter 2 Objectives: The purpose of the chapter was to decompose the health gap between manual workers and non-manual workers into direct effect (the effect of SES per se) and indirect effect (the effect of mediators) by undertaking the mediation analysis. Methods: The author used employee data from the Third Korean Working Conditions Survey (KWCS) as the population. Mediators were perceived risk, low job control, long working hours, low income, and financial imbalance. For the mediation analysis, user-made commands “paramed” and “medeff” were utilized in Stata Program. Results:The proportion of effect mediated by perceived risk at work was 39% (95%CI: 28-65%). The proportion of effect mediated by financial imbalance was 22% (95%CI:16%-39%). The proportion of effect mediated by low job control was 7% (95%CI:5%-13%). The proportion of effect mediated by less than median income was 5% (95%CI:3%-9%). The proportion of effect mediated by unstable employment was 20% (95%CI:15%-34%).The proportion of effect mediated by long working hours was 28% (95%CI: 20%-47%). Conclusions: Perceived risk at work and long working hours might contribute to a health gap between non-manual workers and manual workers with greater magnitude than other mediators. Chapter 3 Objectives: The purpose of the chapter was to investigate the simultaneous effect of exposure to perceived risk and unstable employment on self-rated health in both Korean and the EU. Methods: The author carried out analyses using the employee data from the Third Korean Working Conditions Survey (KWCS) and Fifth European Working condition survey (EWCS). Survey logistic analysis and post-estimation commands were employed for interaction analysis. Interaction analyses was undertaken by both additive scale (Relative Excess of Risk due to interaction) and multiplicative scale (The Ratios of Odds Ratios). Results: The odds ratio (OR) of poor self-rated health was 2.00 (95% confidence interval [CI]: 1.80–2.22) for perceived risk at work, 1.18 (95% CI: 1.09–1.28) for unstable employment, and 3.22 (95% CI: 2.72–3.81) for both for perceived risk at work and unstable employment. The RERI was 1.03 (95% CI: 0.48–1.58) among Korean employees. The odds ratio (OR) for poor self-rated health was 3.20 (95%CI: 2.93–3.49) for perceived risk at work, 1.04 (95% CI: 0.97–1.13) for unstable employment, and 3.41 (95% CI: 2.93–3.98) for both for perceived risk at work and unstable employment. The RERI was 0.18 (95% CI: -0.36–0.71) among European employees. Conclusions: Among Korea employees a supra-additive interaction between perceived risk at work and unstable employment on poor self-rated health was observed. However, among European employees a supra-additive interaction was not observed. Chapter 4 (This Chapter was accepted and will be published in JOEM) Objectives: The aim of the chapter was to investigate the combined effects of long working hours and low job control on self-rated health. Methods: Employees from the Third Korean Working Conditions Survey (KWCS) were the study population. Survey logistic analysis was conducted and then post-estimation commands were employed to estimate the relative excess risk due to interaction (RERI). Results: The odds ratio (OR) for poor self-rated health was 1.24 (95% confidence interval [CI]: 1.13–1.35) for long working hours, 1.04 (95% CI: 0.97–1.13) for low job control, and 1.47(95% CI: 1.33–1.62) for both long working hours and low job control. The RERI was 0.18 (95% CI: 0.02–0.34). Conclusions: These results imply that low job control may increase the negative influence of long working hours on self-rated health. Acknowledgement The author would like to express appreciation to Korea Occupational Safety and Health Agency (KOSHA) for providing the raw data of the third Korean Working Condition Survey.

A Study of the consequences of Working Long Hours

니루파르 영남대학교 2015 국내석사

이 연구는 장시간 노동의 결과를 연구하는 것을 목적으로 한다. 특히 본 연구는 장시간 노동이 일•가정 갈등과 직무 스트레스에 어떠한 영향을 미치는지 살펴본다. 또한 장시간 노동과 직무 성과(이직 의도와 직무 성과) 사이의 관계와 관련하여 일•가정 갈등과 직무 스트레스의 매개 가능성을 조사한다. 연구 자료는 한국의 대구시에 위치한 제조업체의 직원들 개개인을 대상으로 설문조사한 것을 수집한 것이다. 연구결과는 장시간의 노동이 일•가정 갈등과 직무스트레스에 영향을 주는 것으로 나타났다. 나아가 일•가정 갈등과 직무 스트레스가 장시간 노동과 직무 성과 사이의 관계에서 매개자가 될 수 있다는 사실도 확인했다. 본 연구는 이러한 결과를 바탕으로 이론적이고 실질적인 영향을 논하였다. This research aims to study the consequences of working long hours. Particularly, current study examines how working long hours affects on work-family conflict and job stress. Moreover, we investigated the possibility of mediation of work-family conflict and job stress on the relationship between working long hours and employee outcome: (turnover intention and employee performance).Research data were collected via questionnaires which primarily objectives are centered on individuals in manufacturing industry located in Daegu City, South Korea. The result revealed that long hours of work has an effect on work-family conflict and job stress. Furthermore, work-family conflict and job stress can be a mediator between the relationship of working long hours and employee outcome. On the base of these results, I discussed the theoretical and practical implications.

장시간 근로와 허혈성 심질환의 연관성 : 남성 근로자를 중심으로

송차호 전북대학교 보건대학원 2023 국내석사

Background: Comparing the average annual hours actually worked per worker in major countries announced by the OECD in 2019, Korea ranked third with 1,967 hours, following Mexico (2,139 hours) and Costa Rica (2,060 hours). As such, Korea is one of the countries with far too many working hours. Working hours are an important factor that determines the quality of life and labor productivity of workers, and also affects workers' health. Long hours of work have a negative effect on the cardiovascular system, especially in ischemic heart disease, which has a high mortality and high disease burden. The purpose of this study is to compare and analyze the possibility of ischemic heart disease in long-time workers and general workers, and to find out the increase in the risk of ischemic heart disease that can occur due to exposure to excessive working hours. Through this, the need to improve working hours in a working environment where long hours are worked is raised, and basic data for improving working hours are provided. Material and Methods: This study used raw data from the Korea National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey 2013-2019. Excluding unanswered and missing values, 6154 adult male workers between the ages of 20 and 65 were the subjects of the study. Multivariate logistic regression analysis was performed to compare and analyze the possibility of ischemic heart disease in long-time workers (more than 52 hours a week) and general workers (35-40 hours a week). Results: Among adult male workers aged 20 to 65, long-time workers of 52 hours or more per week were 1.656 times more likely to develop ischemic heart disease than general workers of 35 to 40 hours a week, which was statistically significant. (OR= 1.656, 95% CI: 1.046-2.620, p <0.05) In addition to working long hours, age was a factor affecting ischemic heart disease. (OR= 1.135, 95% CI: 1.099-1.173, p <0.01) Other sociodemographic characteristics (marital status, education level, and income level) did not have statistically significant associations with ischemic heart disease. Conclusion: Based on the results of this study, it was confirmed that exposure to excessive working hours can increase the risk of ischemic heart disease. It is proposed to improve working hours to 52 hours or less per week in order to prevent diseases and promote health of workers.

The role of work-family conflict in the relationship between long working hours and workers’ depressive symptoms: gender-stratified analysis in South Korea

이가린 서울대학교 대학원 2023 국내석사

Introduction: Both long working hours and work-family conflict are known to harm workers’ health. However, little empirical research has been conducted to explore how work-family conflict work on the relationship between long working hours and depressive symptoms. Therefore, a gender-stratified analysis was conducted to understand how work-family conflict might be related to the association between long working hours and depressive symptoms in Korean workers. Methods: I analyzed the 6th Korean Working Conditions Survey (KWCS), which is the national representative dataset in South Korea. After restricting the study population to non-shift work wage workers whose weekly working time is over 40 hours per week, 20,282 were included in the final analysis. Three questions in the KWCS measured work-family conflict. Depressive symptoms were measured by WHO-5 well-being index. Baron and Kenny method, Sobel test, and mediation analysis by bootstrapping were used to estimate the mediation effect. Then, to assess effect modification, I conducted stratified analyses by work-family conflict and the interaction effect between work-family conflict and long working hours was estimated with the P-value. All estimation was performed after adjusting for age, education level, families with children under 18, employment type, occupational classification, monthly income, and company size. Results: The prevalence of long working hours (more than 52 hours per week) was 12.1% among male workers and 8.4% among female workers. The mediation effects in both genders were statistically significant by Baron and Kenny method, Sobel test, and mediation analysis by bootstrapping. Workers with both long working hours and work-family conflict had more depressive symptoms than workers without both long working hours and work-family conflict in males (PR: 1.70, 95% CI: 1.54, 1.89) and females (PR: 1.70, 95% CI: 1.49, 1.93). 서론: 장시간 노동과 일-가족 갈등은 모두 근로자의 건강을 해치는 것으로 알려져 있다. 그러나 일-가족 갈등이 장시간 노동과 우울 증상의 관계에서 어떻게 작용하는지에 대한 실증적인 연구는 거의 이루어지지 않았다. 따라서 본 연구에서는 성별 계층화 분석으로 한국 근로자의 장시간 노동과 우울 증상의 관계에서 일-가족 갈등이 어떤 역할을 하는지를 알아보았다. 방법: 한국의 국가 대표성을 가지는 데이터인 제6차 한국근로환경조사(Korean Working Conditions Survey, KWCS)를 분석하였다. 연구대상은 주당 근로시간이 40시간 이상인 교대근무를 하지 않는 임금근로자로 한정하여 20,282명이 분석에 포함되었다. 일-가족 갈등은 KWCS의 세 가지 문항으로 측정하였으며, 우울 증상은 WHO-5를 이용하여 측정하였다. 매개효과를 추정하기 위해 Baron과 Kenny 방법, Sobel test, bootstrapping을 이용한 분석을 사용하였다. 교호작용(effect modification)을 확인하기 위해 일-가족 갈등으로 층화 하여 분석을 실시하고 장시간 근무와 일-가정 갈등과 장시간 노동 사이 상호작용 효과를 P-value로 추정하여 유의성을 평가하였다. 모든 추정모델은 연령, 학력, 가족 중 18세 미만 아동의 여부, 고용형태, 직종, 월수입, 회사규모 등을 고려하여 시행되었다. 결과: 장시간 노동(주 52시간 이상 근무)의 유병률은 남성은 12.1%, 여성은 8.4%였다. Baron과 Kenny 방법, Sobel test, bootstrapping에 의한 매개분석으로 확인한 매개효과는 남성과 여성 모두에서 통계적으로 유의하였다. 교호작용효과로 남성(PR: 1.70, 95% CI: 1.54, 1.89)과 여성(PR: 1.70% CI: 1.49, 1.93) 모두 장시간 근로와 일-가정 갈등이 모두 있는 근로자가 장시간 근로와 일-가정 갈등이 모두 없는 근로자보다 우울 증상이 더 높았다.

장시간 근로가 미충족의료 경험에 미치는 영향 : 한국의료패널 자료를 이용하여

송지훈 서울대학교 대학원 2021 국내석사

한국은 2018년 기준 연간 근로시간이 OECD 국가 중 3위로 장시간 근로는 우리 사회에 만연해있다. 이러한 장시간 근로는 근로자들에게 고혈압, 당뇨 등의 만성질환, 뇌심혈관계 질환, 우울증 등의 정신질환, 흡연 등의 건강위해행동의 위험을 높인다고 알려져있다. 이 외에도 의료서비스 접근을 제한하여 미충족의료가 발생하면서 질병의 악화에 기여할 수 있다는 문제제기가 있다. 이에 본 연구는 한국의료패널 자료를 이용하여 장시간근로와 미충족의료 경험사이의 관계를 탐구하고자 한다. 본 연구는 한국의료패널 제6차(2011)~제9차(2014) 자료를 이용하여 만19세 이상 임근근로자를 대상으로 주당 근로시간이 미충족의료 경험에 미치는 영향을 탐구하였다. 최종 연구대상은 16945인년(6444명)이 선정되었고, 주당 근로시간은 40시간 이하, 40시간 초과 52시간 이하, 52시간 초과 60시간 이하, 60시간 초과의 4개의 군으로 분류하였다. 이후 DAG를 통해 최종 선정된 통제변수를 바탕으로 일반화추정방정식을 시행하였으며, 사유별로 근로관련 조건이 미충족의료 경험에 미치는 요인에 대해 분석하였다. 남녀 각각 13.42%, 17.49%에서 미충족의료를 경험하였다고 응답하였으며, 남녀 모두 인구사회학적(나이, 소득분위, 교육수준) 및 근로관련 특성(직종, 근무형태, 고용형태)을 보정하여도 주당 근로시간 증가에 따라 미충족의료 경험이 유의하게 증가하였다. 남성에서 주 40시간 이하 근로를 기준으로 했을 때 근로시간 범주의 증가에 따라 교차비가 1.37(95%CI : 1.17-1.60), 1.43(95%CI : 1.20-1.72), 1.80(95%CI : 1.45-2.23)로 증가하였고 여성에서는 1.18(95%CI : 1.02-1.38), 1.27(95%CI : 1.04-1.56), 2.30(95%CI : 1.78-2.97)으로 증가하였다. 이외에 남성에선 연령과 소득분위와 교육수준이, 여성에선 소득분위와 교육수준, 근무형태가 미충족의료에 영향을 미치는 것으로 나타났다. 사유별로 살펴보았을 때, 남성에서 연령, 소득분위, 고용형태가, 여성에선 소득분위와 교육수준, 고용형태가 경제적 사유로 인한 미충족의료 경험에 영향을 미치는 것으로 나타나며 주당 근로시간의 영향은 없었다. 시간적 사유로 인한 미충족의료 경험은 남성에서 주당 근로시간, 근무형태가 영향을 미쳤고 여성에선 주당 근로시간, 근무형태, 고용형태가 영향을 미치는 것으로 나타났다. 여기서 근무형태는 남녀에서 각기 다른 방향으로 미충족의료 경험에 영향을 미치는 것으로 나타난다. 본 연구 결과, 장시간 근로는 시간적 사유로 인한 미충족의료 경험의 위험을 높이는 것으로 나타났다. 이를 줄이기 위해선 근로시간의 실질적 단축, 상병수당 도입, 산업보건제도의 개편 등이 필요할 것으로 사료된다. In 2018, Korea ranked third among OECD countries with annual working hours, and long working hours is prevalent in our society. These long working hours is known to increase the risk of chronic diseases such as hypertension and diabetes, cerebral cardiovascular disease, mental illness such as depression, and health-related behaviors such as smoking. In addition, there is a problem that it may contribute to the worsening of the disease as unmet medical needs occurs by restricting access to medical services. Therefore, this study aims to explore the relationship between long working hours and experience of unmet medical needs using data from the Korean Health Panel. This study investigated the effect of working hours per week on unmet medical needs for wage workers aged 19 or older, using data from the 6th (2011) to 9th (2014) of the Korean Health Panel. Working hours per week were classified into 4 groups: 40 hours or less, over 40 hours and 52 hours or less, over 52 hours and 60 hours or less, and over 60 hours. After that, a generalized estimation equation was implemented based on the covariates finally selected through DAG, and the factors affecting the unmet medical needs by work-related conditions for each reason were analyzed. 13.42% and 17.49% of men and women, respectively, answered that they experienced unmet medical needs, and both men and women reported working hours per week increase unmet medical needs significantly even if the demographic factor (e.g., age, income quintile, education level) and work-related characteristics (e.g., occupation, shiftwork, employment type) were adjusted. After stratification for gender, compared 40 hours or less, the odds ratio increased to 1.37, 1.43, and 1.80 according to the increase of the working hours category for men, and 1.18, 1.27, and 2.30 for women. In addition, it was found that age, income quintile and education level for men, and income quintile, education level, and work type for women affected unmet medical needs. When investigated by reason, it was found that age, income quintile, employment type in men, and income quintile, education level, and employment type in women influenced unmet medical needs due to economic reasons, and there was no effect of working hours per week. As for the unmet medical needs due to time reasons, it was found that working hours per week and shiftwork influenced men, and working hours per week, shiftwork, and employment type influenced women. Here, it appears that shift affects the unmet medical needs in different directions in men and women. As a result of this study, long working hours were found to increase the risk of unmet medical needs due to time reasons. To reduce this, it is considered necessary to effectively shorten working hours, introduce sickness allowance, and reorganize the occupational health system.

성인 임금 근로자의 장시간 근로와 고위험 음주의 관련성

이현주 연세대학교 보건대학원 2024 국내석사

배경 및 목적 우리나라 고위험음주율은 2019년 12.6%에 비해 2020년 14.1%, 2021년 13.4%로 반등하였으며, 지역사회건강조사 결과에 따르면, 코로나19로 인해 개선 추세에 있던 음주 관련 지표는 다시 악화되고 있다. 이러한 국내 음주 양상 악화가 장시간 근로와 관련된 것인지는 잘 알려져 있지 않으며, 우리나라에서 장시간 근로에 해당하는 시간을 기준으로 하여 19-64세 근로 가능 인구와 고위험음주에 대해 분석한 연구는 충분하지 않다. 따라서 본 연구에서는 성인 임금 근로자의 장시간 근로와 고위험 음주의 연관성에 대해 알아보았다. 연구방법 국민건강영양조사 자료 10개년(2012년-2021년)을 통합한 자료를 이용하여, 만 19세 이상 임금 근로자를 대상으로 연구를 수행하였다. 고위험 음주의 기준은 남성은 일주일에 14잔 이상, 여성은 일주일에 7잔 이상 마시는 것으로 정의하였으며, 주당 근로시간은 ‘40시간 이하’, ‘41시간-50시간’, ‘51시간-60시간’ ‘60시간 이상’으로 범주화하여 분석하였다. 임금 근로자의 인구·사회학적 요인, 근로 관련 요인, 건강 관련 요인에 따른 고위험 음주와 장시간 근로의 관련성을 확인하기 위해 카이제곱 검정과 다중 로지스틱 회귀분석을 시행하였다. 연구결과 고위험 음주자는 남성 2,382명(26.9%), 여성 1,139명(15.2%), 폭음은 남성 5,513명(62.3%), 여성 2,4316명(32.3%), 주당 근로시간은 40시간 이상 50시간 미만이 7,524명(46.1%), 40시간 미만 5,257명(32.2%), 50시간 이상 60시간 미만 2,283(14.0%), 60시간 이상 1,265명(7.8%)이었다. 주 60시간 이상 근무자의 고위험음주율은 남성 31.9%, 여성 23.3%였으며, 고위험음주와 폭음을 둘 다 하는 경우는 각각 29.4%, 21.3%였다. 주당 근로시간과 고위험 음주 간 관련성을 로지스틱 회귀분석으로 분석하였을 때, 남성은 연령보정 모형 1 및 연령, 결혼 여부, 교육 수준, 직업군, 정규직 여부를 보정한 모형 2에서 주당 근로시간 40시간 미만에 비해 60시간 이상에서 고위험 음주 오즈비가 1.27(OR 1.27, 95% CI 1.07-1.52)로 높았으나, 모형 3에서 흡연 여부, 주관적 스트레스를 추가로 보정하였을 때 유의성이 사라졌다. 여성에서는 모든 모형에서 유의한 관련성을 보였으며, 모형 3에서 주당 근로시간이 40시간 미만에 비해 50시간 이상 60시간 미만, 60시간 이상인 경우, 고위험 음주 오즈비는 각각 1.39(OR 1.39, 95% CI 1.09-1.78), 1.65(OR 1.65, 95% CI 1.20-2.28) 높았다. 결론 근로시간이 50시간 이상인 경우 여성 고위험 음주 위험이 높아졌으며, 남성에서도 관련성이 있었으나 흡연과 주관적 스트레스를 보정하였을 때 유의성이 사라진 것으로 볼 때 이들은 매개요인으로 추정되며 향후 추가 연구가 필요하다. 고위험 음주를 예방하기 위해 장시간 근로를 줄일 수 있는 대책 및 남녀별 특성에 맞는 개입 전략과 검증 연구가 필요하다. Background and Purpose Korea's high-risk drinking rate rebounded to 14.1% in 2020 and 13.4% in 2021 compared to 12.6% in 2019, and according to the results of a community health survey, drinking-related indicators, which were on the improvement trend due to COVID-19, are deteriorating again. It is not well known whether this deterioration of drinking patterns in Korea is related to long-term work, and based on the time equivalent to long-term work in Korea. Methods Using data integrating 10 years of data from the National Health and Nutrition Survey (2012-2021), a study was conducted on wage workers over the age of 19. The criteria for high-risk drinking were defined as men drinking 14 or more drinks a week and women drinking 7 or more drinks a week, and working hours per week were categorized into '40 hours or less', '41 hours-50 hours', '51-60 hours' and '60 hours or more'. A chi-square test and multiple logistic regression analysis were performed to confirm the relationship between high-risk drinking and long-term work according to sociodemographic factors, work-related factors, and health-related factors of wage workers. Result The high-risk drinkers were 2,382 men (26.9%), 1,139 women (15.2%), 5,513 men (62.3%), 2,4316 women (32.3%), 7,524 working hours per week were 40 hours or more and less than 50 hours (46.1%), 5,257 (32.2%), 2,283 (14.0%) for 50 hours or more and less than 60 hours, and 1,265 people (7.8%) for 60 hours or more. The high-risk drinking rates for workers working more than 60 hours per week were 31.9% for men and 23.3% for women, and 29.4% and 21.3% for both high-risk drinking and binge drinking, respectively. When the relationship between working hours per week and high-risk drinking was analyzed by logistic regression, men had a higher high-risk drinking odds ratio of 1.27 (OR 1.27, 95% CI 1.07-1.52) in 60 hours or longer than 40 hours of working hours per week in age-corrected model 1 and model 2, which corrected age, marital status, education level, occupational group, and regular status, but the significance disappeared when smoking status and subjective stress were further corrected in model 3. In women, significant relevance was shown in all models, and in Model 3, the high-risk drinking odds ratio was 1.39 (OR 1.39, 95% CI 1.09-1.78) and 1.65 (OR 1.65, 95% CI 1.20-2.28), respectively, when working hours per week were more than 50 hours and less than 60 hours compared to less than 40 hours. Conclusion When working hours were more than 50 hours, the risk of women's high-risk drinking increased, and it was also associated with men, but considering that the significance disappeared when smoking and subjective stress were corrected, these are presumed to be mediating factors, and further studies are needed in the future. In order to prevent high-risk drinking, measures to reduce long-term work and intervention strategies and verification studie

디지털 테크놀로지와 노동의 시·공간적 확장

신도연 연세대학교 대학원 2018 국내석사

This thesis examines how white-collar workers in their 20s and 30s engage in labor on mobile messaging applications which dismantle the previous time-space boundary of work. It researches about the discipline and control that make them embody the resulting long hour performance of work, and analyzes how the workers respond to the work-discipline enforced upon them by the instantaneity of mobile messaging. The long hour labor discussed in this thesis which is the work performed on a mobile messenger that blurs the time and space boundaries of communication has emerged as a social problem. The purpose of this thesis is to provide a critical analysis on this issue and to suggest countermeasures. The researcher used in-depth interview, literature review and discourse analysis for the methodology of this thesis. Thirteen Korean office workers in their 20s or 30s, who have high rates of smartphone usage, participated as informants for the in-depth interviews between February and March of 2017. The findings of the research are as follows. First, a mobile messenger functions as a virtual workplace that is an extension of physical work space. It creates the effect of enforcing workers to work through self-censorship regardless of the time and space of work which they initially agreed upon. Workers perform work outside their contractually negotiated hours because communication on the mobile messenger demands immediate action and intimacy. This demand of intimate responses on the mobile messenger is combined with the hierarchical order existing in the workplace to compel workers to perform emotional labor. Second, workers who are subordinated to the extended working hours are reacting to the current labor system by securing their own time and space, which attempts are made through the use of digital technology. Workers whose working hours have been extended through smartphones use the smartphones to engage in activities which are perceived as 'taking rest', such as hobbies or access to information of their interests online. This contradiction results in blurring not only the temporal boundaries but also the spatial boundaries of work and life. Third, the researcher argues that government intervention is needed in the negotiation on work hours and work disciplines between workers and corporations. The workers do not hold equal status as the corporations in negotiating work hours but the labor with ambiguous time-space boundaries continues to be imposed upon them. This situation demands counter-measures prepared at government level. France, which presented institutional measures against expanding working hours through the use of smartphones, decided to prohibit corporations from demanding workers to work outside the working hours based on the "right to disconnect". Germany introduced measures to block company e-mail servers in order to prevent workers from sending or receiving e-mails outside of working hours. The Japanese government is taking measures to the social issue of long working hours as these have caused overwork suicides and deaths. In Korea, a bill introducing the “right to disconnect” was proposed. Korean workers in their 20s and 30s today are experiencing the expansion of working hours which is sustained by the hierarchical order of workplace, and are forced to perform emotional labor. The interface characteristics of mobile messengers contribute to implementing work discipline and control. Workers are responding to this situation by securing private time and newly defining this time. This thesis argues that the issue should be resolved by providing detailed classification in identifying what is working hours and by initiating related measures. 본 논문은 시∙공간적 경계를 해체하는 모바일 메신저 상에서 이루어지는 업무, 이로 인해 장시간 노동의 수행을 내재하게 하는 규율과 통제에 대해 분석한다. 나아가 즉각적 반응을 이용해 강요된 노동 규율에 대한 20-30대 직장인들의 대응을 알아보고자 한다. 본 연구가 다루는 장시간 노동은 소통의 시∙공간적 경계를 해체하는 모바일 메신저 상에서 이루어지는 업무이며 사회적 문제로 부상했다. 이에 대한 비판적인 분석을 진행하고 대응 방안을 제시하는 것이 본 연구의 목적이다. 본 연구를 위해 심층면접과 문헌조사, 담론 분석을 이용했다. 심층면접은 2017년 2월에서 3월 사이에 진행되었으며, 스마트폰 이용률이 높은 한국의 20-30대 사무직 직장인 13명을 대상으로 수행되었고, 이를 통해 도출한 분석은 다음과 같다. 첫째, 모바일 메신저는 물리적 직장 공간의 연장선상에 있는 직장 공간의 역할을 수행하게 한다. 이는 직장인들로 하여금 자기 검열을 통해 지정된 업무의 시∙공간과 무관하게 노동자로서 일하게 하는 효과를 갖는다. 모바일 메신저가 유발하는 즉각성과 친밀성이 커뮤니케이션에 요구되면서 직장인들은 자신이 계약상 협의한 노동 시간 외에도 업무를 수행하고 있다. 또, 친밀성의 표현이 요구되는 모바일 메신저 공간과 직장 내 존재하는 위계질서가 결합되면서, 직장인들은 업무뿐만 아니라 감정 노동의 수행을 강요 받는다. 둘째, 확장되는 노동시간에 예속된 노동자들은 자신 고유의 시간과 공간을 확보하려는 방식으로 현 노동 체제에 대응하고 있으며, 이러한 시도는 디지털 테크놀로지를 통해 이루어지고 있다. 노동시간이 스마트폰을 통해 확장된 상황에서 직장인들은 스마트폰을 이용해 취미나 관심사에 접속하여 휴식을 취한다고 믿게 되고, 이러한 모순성은 일과 생활의 시간적 경계뿐만 아니라 공간적 경계까지 흐려지게 하는 결과를 초래한다. 셋째, 연구자는 노동자와 기업 사이의 노동 시간 및 규율의 협상에 있어 정부가 개입해야 한다고 주장한다. 현재 노동시간의 협상에 있어 기업과 노동자의 관계가 동등하지 못하며, 시∙공간적 경계가 불분명한 노동이 지속되고 있기 때문에 이에 대한 대책의 마련이 정부의 차원에서 이루어져야 한다. 스마트폰의 이용을 통해 노동시간이 확장되는 상황에 대한 제도적 대책을 마련한 프랑스는 ‘연결되지 않을 권리’를 바탕으로 근무 시간이 아닌 시간에 노동하는 것을 노사간 합의 하에 금지하도록 했다. 독일의 경우 근무시간 이외에 메일을 주고 받지 않기 위해 기업의 이메일 서버를 차단하는 대책을 내놓기도 했다. 과로로 인한 자살, 사망사건이 대두되면서 장시간 노동이 사회적 문제로 부각되고 있는 일본의 경우 정부 차원의 대책을 마련하려는 움직임을 보이고 있다. 한국에서는‘연결되지 않을 권리’를 중심으로 하는 법안이 발의되었다. 현재 한국의 20-30대 직장인들은 직장의 위계질서 노동시간의 확장을 경험하며 감정 노동의 수행도 강요 받고 있고, 여기에서 모바일 메신저의 인터페이스적 특성이 노동통제와 규율의 이행을 돕는다. 직장인들은 이러한 상황에 자신의 시간을 확보하고, 새롭게 의마화하는 방식으로 대응하고 있다. 나아가 이 문제는 근로시간의 의미를 세분화하고, 이에 대한 꾸준한 법안의 발의를 통해 개선 되어야 한다.

Association betwen long working hours and depressive disorder

최희재 Graduate School of Public Health, Yonsei Universit 2018 국내석사

서론: 장시간 근로 시간은 근로자의 안전과 건강에 부정적인 영향을 미치고 생산성을 저하시킨다. 본 연구에서 는 우울장애를 평가하는 PHQ-9 설문지를 이용한 2014년 국민 건강 영양 평가 자료를 분석하여 장시간 근로와 우울장애 의 관계를 분석한다. 방법: 제 6 회 국민 건강 및 영양 조사 조사를 통해 PHQ-9 설문에 응답한 2014 년 1865 명의 근로자(남자: 931 명, 여자; 932명) 의 데이터를 분석하였다. 인구학적 특징 및 건강행태, 직업적 특징을 보정 한 후 다변량 로지스 틱 회귀분석을 통해 근로시간과 우울장애와의 관계를 조사하였다. 결과: 남성 근로자의 경우 주당 ≤35, 46-55, 56-65 또는 ≥65 시간 근로하는 군에서 주당 36-45 시간 일하는 군 에 비해 우울장애가 높다. (교차비 (95 % 신뢰 구간) : 4.45 (1.20-16.48), 3.39 (1.01-11.44) , 2.21 (0.44-11.17), 6.27 (1.53-25.34)) 여성 근로자의 경우 주당 26-40 시간 일하는 사람에 비해 주당 ≤25, 40-55, 55-70, ≥70 시간 근로하는 군에서 우울장애 교차비 (95 % CIs)가 다음과 같이 나타났다. (1.65 (0.74-3.69), 0.95 (0.44-2.04), 0.74 (0.20-2.77), 7.12 (1.85-37.46)) 결론: 한국의 근로자들에서 근로 표준시간 이상 장시간 근로군에서 우울장애 유병률이 높다. 특히, 우울 장애 유병률은 근로 시간이 매우 길 때 (남성> 65 시간, 여성> 70 시간) 급격히 증가한다. 또한 여성보다 남성에서 장 시간 근로와 우울장애의 관련성이 유의하게 나타난다. Objective: This study examined the relationship between depressive disorder and long working hours in a rapidly developing country (Korea). Methods: Data were collected from 1865 participants in 2014, through the 6th Korean National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey. After adjusting for demographic, health-related, and occupational characteristics, multivariate logistic regression models were used to estimate odds ratios and 95% confidence intervals for the relationship between depressive disorder and working hours. After adjusting for age, body mass index,educational level, marital status, sleep duration, exercise, smoking, drinking, shift work, occupational grade,employment status, and household income. Results: We found that male workers who worked ≤35, 46–55, 56–65, or ≥65 h per week were more likely (odds ratios (95% confidence intervals): 4.45 (1.20–16.48), 3.39 (1.01–11.44), 2.21 (0.44–11.17), and 6.27 (1.53–25.34), respectively) to have depressive disorder as compared to those who worked 36–45 h per week. Among female workers, those working ≤ 25, 40–55, 55–70, or ≥70 h per week were more likely (odds ratios (95% CIs): 1.65 (0.74–3.69), 0.95 (0.44–2.04), 0.74 (0.20–2.77), 7.12 (1.85–37.46) respectively) to have depressive disorder compared to those working 26–40 h per week. Conclusion: The results indicate that long working hours are associated with depressive disorder among employees in Korea. Especially, the prevalence rate of depressive disorder increases rapidly when the working time is very long (male> 65hr, female> 70hr). The relationship between long hours of work and depressive disorder is more significant in men than in women.

Mediation effect of work-family conflict between worktime and depression of married working women in Korea

김보은 고려대학교 대학원 2017 국내석사

According to statistics of OECD, average annual hours actually worked per worker in Korea were second longest in OECD countries in 2014. There were many researches that long working hours affected depression. But, results were inconsistent and few studies have examined work-family conflict could be a mediator between long working hours and depression. The purposes of this study were to investigate the relationship between long working hours, work-family conflict and depression in married working women group and to confirm whether the work-family conflict had a mediating effect in the process that long working hours affected depression. Sample consisted of 754 Korean married working women in fifth Korean Longitudinal Study of Women & Families (KLoWF). Structural equation modeling was conducted for the analyses using Mplus 7.3. Final model had a good model fit: CFI = .985, TLI = .982, RMSEA = .046, WRMR = .976. Results showed that worktime significantly affected work-family conflict and work-family conflict significantly affected depression in turn. In addition, work-family conflict had significant mediating effect between worktime and depression. Therefore, more strict policies for less working hours and less work-family conflict are needed to prevent depression of married working women in Korea.

일부 생산직 근로자의 근로시간과 일-생활 균형의 관계

김지은 연세대학교 보건대학원 2020 국내석사

본 연구는 장시간 근로시간과 불규칙한 근로시간이 생산직 근로자의 일-생활 균형에 미치는 영향을 분석하는데 목적이 있다. 제5차 근로환경조사 (The Fourth Working Conditions Survey, KWCS) 자료를 이용하여 기능원 및 관련 기능 종사자, 장치/기계 조작 및 조립 종사자, 단순노무종사자 등 세 직군에 종사하는 생산직 근로자 14,789명을 연구 대상으로 하였다. 일반적 특성과 근무시간, 근무유형 등과 일-생활 균형 사이의 관계를 알아보기 위해 카이제곱 검정을 실시하고, 근로시간과 근무형태가 일-생활 균형에 미치는 영향을 알아보기 위해서 일-생활 균형 여부를 종속변수로 한 로지스틱 회귀분석을 실시하였다. 연구결과, 주당근로시간이 적을수록, 야간근로를 적게 할수록, 장시간 근로를 하지 않을수록, 근무형태가 규칙적일수록 일-생활 균형이 적당하였다. 결론적으로 일과 생활의 균형을 맞추려면 총 근무시간이 중요하고 규칙적인 근로시간 확보가 중요함을 알 수 있었다. This study aims to analyze the effect of long working hours and irregular working hours on the work-life balance of blue collar workers. Using the Fifth Working Conditions Survey(KWCS) data, 14,789 blue collar workers in three job categories were studied: technical personnel and related functional workers, device/machine operation and assembly workers, and manual(or unskilled) labor workers. A chi-square test was conducted to identify the relationship among variables such as general characteristics, working hours, work type, and work-life balance. A logistic regression analysis was also conducted to examine the effect of working hours and working patterns on a work-life balance. According to the study, the following variables contribute to a better work-life balance: less working hours per week, less night work, fewer days with extended hours, and a more regular work pattern. In conclusion, the sum total of working hours and consistent scheduling are paramount in balancing work and life.