"KINGDOM NOW" : SOCIAL IMPLICATION OF ESCHATOLOGY IN THE PENTECOSTAL-CHARISMATIC MOVEMENT IN AMERICA

배덕만 Drew University 2004 해외박사

일반적으로 미국에서 오순절-은사주의 운동은 묵시적 종말론에 근거해서 내세적, 염세적 세계관을 신앙하면서, 사회에 대해서 무관심, 혹은 무책임하다는 비난을 받아왔다. 그러나 제2차 세계대전 이후로 이 그룹 안에서 새로운 종말론에 근거하여, 적극적으로 사회참여를 시도하는 그룹들이 생겨나고 있다. 그 대표적 인물로, 조지아주 아틀랜타 시에서 Chapel Hill Harvester Church의 담임목사인 얼 퍽(Earl Paulk)과 버지니아주에 소재한 미국 최대의 기독교 텔레비전 방송국인 CBN(Christian Broadcasting Network)의 창설자이자 Regent University의 총장인 팻 로벗슨(Pat Robertson)을 들 수 있다. 퍽 목사는 후천년설에 근거해서, 자신의 교회를 중심으로 도시빈민, 미혼모, 동성연애자 들을 돕는 다양한 프로그램을 진행하고, 인종차별 철폐를 위해서도 왕성한 활동을 벌이고 있다. 로벗슨은전천년설적 종말론을 견지하면서, 동시에 방송국, 대학교, 법률회사, 정치로비단체, 그리고 빈민구제 단체들을 직접 운영하고, 다양한 정치, 경제, 사회 운동에 참여하고 있을 뿐만 아니라, 특별히 1988년에는 미국 공화당 대통령 후보에 출마하기도 했었다. 이 두 사람의 활발한 사회활동과 오순절 운동의 전통적 종말론과는 상이한 종말론을 주목할 때, 근래에 오순절 운동이 전통적인 획일적 모습에서 탈피하여, 좀더 다양한 모습으로 변화하고 있음을 알 수 있으며, 특히 그들의 새로운 종말론에 근거한 적극적 사회참여는 앞으로 오순절운동의 정체성에 심각한 변화를 초래할 것으로 기대하며, 사회안에서 오순절운동의 역할도 점점 중요해질 것으로 전망된다. Ⅰ. What Happened after WWⅡ? First of all, one can notice an obvious eschatological shift from premillennialism to postmillennialism within the Pentecostal-Charismatic movements. Before World War Ⅱ, only one predominant eschatological voice existed in Pentecostalism, that is, dispensational premillennialism. As we examined in chapter Ⅱ it is difficult to see any remarkable distinctions among the early Pentecostal leaders regarding major eschatological issues. All of them believed in Jesus' second coming before the Millennium as well as the Saint's rapture before the Great Tribulation. They held extremely pessimistic views of the future, indifference to or limited concern about the social reform, and professed a sectarian self-understanding that only selected believers will be raptured. However, after World War Ⅱ, one began to hear highly different voices concerning the end-time from the Pentecostal-Charismatic circles. Such a monolithic voice about the end-time began to be cracked by new high- pitched and logically-persuasive counter voices. That is, postmillennialists such as Earl Paulk, Jr. began to appear on the stage of eschatological debate. Postribulationists including Pat Robertson also raised their voices against pretribulationists. As a result, it is not possible to simply identify Pentecostals with dispensational premillenialists any longer as long as these new eschatological voices warrant consideration. Secondly, such an eschatological change brought about another significant change in the view of the future among the Pentecostal and Charismatic Christians. The early Pentecostals were preoccupied with the impending end of history. Since their eyes were fixed on the tragic events at home and abroad such as the Russian Revolution, World War Ⅰ, and The Depression, it is understandable for them to develop such an extremely pessimistic view of the future. Even that view drove them to interpret the emerging scientific and technological progress as the clear signs of the impending end of time. In that situation, all they could do was to wait for Jesus' second coming in spiritual, moral purity instead of trying to change this corrupt world by social reform movements. Such a pessimistic world-view was also changed due to the new eschatological trends in the Pentecostal-Charismatic movement. In the case of Paulk and Robertson, they developed very bright and optimistic expectations of the future. Additionally, they have maintained a very positive view of human beings. They have focused on almost absolute trust in the power of the Holy Spirit. They have cultivated a great expectation of the great revival in the future. They have even believed in eternity and the ultimate establishment of the Kingdom of God on earth. On the basis of such a highly optimistic view of the future, both of them have continually promulgated their own messages of social reform. They have also actively participated in social reform movements in various ways. Thus, given the two figures, it is not valid to regard one-sidedly the Pentecostal-Charismatic movements as apocalyptic sects preoccupied with the bleak future. Thirdly, despite their absolute belief in and dependence on the Holy Spirit, the early Pentecostals tended to confine the major role of the Holy Spirit to missionary work whose main goal was to save individual souls not the entire world. Even though they experienced the miraculous power of the Holy Spirit, they did not expect that they could do something to change the world with the help of the power. Above all, they made use of their own experience of baptism with the Holy Spirit to justify their argument that only those who had or would have had that experience would be caught up into the air to meet Jesus and to escape from the Great Tribulation. That is, their understanding of the Holy Spirit was very individualistic and limited. However, one can notice a significant change on that matter in the Pentecostal-Charismatic movement after WWⅡ. In particular, Paulk and Robertson's understanding of the Holy Spirit represents a very different version from the earlier generation. Their personal experience of baptism of the Holy Spirit reconstructed their abstract and theoretical understanding of the Holy Spirit. Those unforgettable experiences helped them to have a more serious faith in the Holy Spirit. Those experiences also changed their negative view of human beings as sinners with sinful natures to God's able co-workers filled with the Holy Spirit, that is, from pessimism in humankind's sinful nature to optimism in the Holy Spirit. Such a changed view of human beings also propelled them to develop more optimistic expectation of the future heavily depending on the power of the Holy Spirit. For them, salvation should not be reduced to the individual and spiritual dimensions only. Rather, in their view, it should and can be expanded to social, world-wide, and even universal dimensions. All these things are made possible in the Holy Spirit. As a result, both of them came to have a great vision that the Kingdom of God will be realized by the power of the Holy Spirit regardless of Satan's all efforts to disturb it. Finally, the early Pentecostals' primary concern was about the heaven they expected they would enter after their death. Thus, their main religious practice was to experience baptism with the Holy Spirit, and to maintain their religious or spiritual holiness. Though some of them tried to help others in need, the primary motif of their good behaviors or charity works was not to change the structure of life conditions, but to express their love as good neighbors, without expecting any further meaning or change in them. Thus, it is almost impossible to find the concept of "Responsible Christians" in the early Pentecostals. They did not have to be responsible for others. All they had to do was to be responsible for themselves as spiritually pure Christians. However, Paulk and Robertson became new examples who began to propagate the concept of "Responsible Christians" in the Pentecostal-Charismatic movement after WWⅡ. Even though they still did not give up their hope of the Kingdom of God to come, they preferred to stress the presence or eternity of the Kingdom of God. That is, their primary concern is not about the future but the present, not about the kingdom in heaven, but the kingdom on earth. Based on this changed target of concern, both of them developed their deep concern about social issues, participated in various kinds of social reform movements, and tried to take responsibility for their society, nation, world, and even nature. At the same time, they have inveighed on the conservative Christians, including Pentecostals, for their indifference to the social issues which have made a highly negative impact upon our life. In that sense, one needs to reexamine his or her prejudice against the Pentecostal-Charismatic movement that it is one of the most conservative or even reactionary religious forces in the United States. Ⅱ. What Caused Such Eschatological Shifts to Happen? One of the main goals of this academic research is to determine the chief reasons which caused such new eschatological trends to appear after WWⅡ. The one answer that I found through this research is that this eschatological change is a result of the so-called embourgeoisement of the Pentecostal-Charismatic movement after WWⅡ. That is, Paulk and Robertson are the off-springs of embourgeoisement of the Pentecostal-Charismatic movement after WWⅡ. I can explain this point in two ways: social factors and personal factors. In general, many scholars have tried to explain the genesis of Pentecostalism in the early twentieth century with the help of a sociological method known as "deprivation theory." Based on their research on the economic, social, and political status of the early Pentecostals, the scholars concluded that the low social, economic, and political status or conditions caused them to accept the Pentecostal form of faith, which sought an afterlife, a radical spiritual experience, and a sectarian life style. Though such an analysis has been continually attacked and corrected by a series of advanced studies, it is not impossible to entirely desert that theory, for we still have much evidence which makes sense of such a sociological study. Thus, if it is still partly possible to explain why the early Pentecostals came to accept premillennialism as their doctrine of the end-time based on deprivation theory, it is my argument that it is also possible to take into account why Paulk and Robertson came to have new forms of eschatology very close to postmillennialism. That is, one of the main reasons that made them choose such new eschatological thinking is that they were the products of the improved social environment of the Pentecostal-Charismatic movements in the second half of the twentieth century. First of all, I can indicate three major changes in the Pentecostal movement which provided the social settings by which the new eschatological trends came into being. The first change is that Pentecostals were invited into the National Association of Evangelicals in 1943 as official members. Since its genesis in 1901, Pentecostals had been rejected by the mainline evangelicals for their radical doctrine of the Holy Spirit including glossolalia, the action of speaking in tongues. However, Pentecostals eventually came to be accepted by other evangelical Christians as friends and neighbors through their official participation in that association. That was a remarkable sign that Pentecostals began to move from the periphery to the center in evangelical Christian life. The second point is the appearance of the Charismatic movement in the late 1950s Until then, the experience of baptism with the Holy Spirit was confined to a small circle of Pentecostals. But since the late 1950s, such a spiritual experience began to extend beyond the wall of the denomination. Episcopalians, Presbyterians, Methodists, Baptists, and even Roman Catholics began to speak in tongues, pray for miraculous healings, prophesy, and interpretation. This unexpected expansion of the spiritual experience justified Pentecostals' belief and legitimated their religious activity. Since then, it became meaningless to differentiate the old type of Pentecostalism from the newly-born Charismatic movement. The third point is the remarkable work of the Full Gospel Business Men International. This organization was formed by Demos Shakarian, an Armenian Pentecostal businessman in 1952. This group promulgated "a new gospel of wealth, health, and glossolalia," and succeeded in recruiting its new members from "hundreds of thousands of mainline Protestant and Catholic charismatics." As Vinson Synan, a well-known Pentecostal historian, evaluated, "Despite its exclusion of women, and its American capitalistic ethos, the Full Gospel Business Men played a major role in winning thousands of traditional churchgoers to the Pentecostal experience." In this favorable environment, Paulk and Robertson became Pentecostals and Charismatics respectively, and began their own unique ministries clearly differentiated from the old-line Pentecostals. In addition to such a favorably-changed social environment, one needs to take into account the personal elements which affected Paulk and Robertson's new eschatologies. Above all, one should consider the fact that both Paulk and Roberson were born and raised in prominent family circumstances. In the case of Paulk, his father was one of the outstanding leaders in his denomination, the Church of God. His father, Paulk, Sr. continued to climb up the hierarchical ladder in that denomination to become its second Assistant General Overseer. Robertson's background is even more remarkable than Paulk's, for his father, Willis Robertson was one of the respected leaders of the U.S. Senate. Those exceptional family backgrounds not only provided them with pride, but also differentiated them from other ordinary Pentecostal-Charismatic people. Secondly, such exceptionally advantageous family backgrounds provided them with educational privileges which were still a very rare and selective opportunities in their respective childhoods. Paulk graduated from Furman University, and obtained his M. Div. degree from Emory University. According to him, he was the first Pentecostal student who enrolled in that prestigious Methodist University. Robertson graduated from Washington and Lee University (B.A.), Yale University Law School (J.D.), and New York Theological Seminary (M. Div.). Robertson's educational accomplishments are still regarded as very exceptional in the Pentecostal-Charismatic circles. These educational training helped them to have extended personal connections with high raking celebrities within and beyond the boundary of their own denominations as well as highly advanced theological knowledge, which also made a conspicuous distinction between them and others. In a word, their advanced educations enabled them to have a somewhat different world-view from the rest of the Pentecostals. Finally, one also needs to pay attention to their personal contacts with the outstanding political, religious, and social leaders. Both Paulk and Robertson shared the one common desire that they wanted to extend their influences beyond their denominations to even the center of this nation. Such an ambition was encouraged and realized through various personal connections. In the case of Paulk, he met Martin Luther King, Sr. and Martin Luther King, Jr. in the early days of his ministry. That meeting made an indelible impact on the direction and identity of his socially-oriented ministry. He also was deeply influenced by David Du Plessis, the outstanding Pentecostal leader in the ecumenical movement. In Robertson's case, his meetings with Dennis Bennet, one of the leading figures in the Charismatic movement, and Kenneth Hagin, an influential bible teacher, are highly remarkable. In addition, they quite likely opened the doors to close relationships with prominent religious and political leaders such as Billy Graham, Demos Shakarian, and George Bush, Sr. After all, such personal relationships with the celebrities helped them to work not only on the periphery but in the center of the American religious life. In conclusion, these personal privileges and social environment undeniably influenced on these two figures such that they came to have highly different views of human beings, the world, and history. Thus, it is my conviction that without considering these factors, it is not possible to understand their eschatological traits and their active social engagements. Ⅲ. What Should Be Examined Further? The result of this research study indicates that Paulk and Robertson have developed new eschatological thinking, and tried to participate in various social reform movements based on their unique eschatologies. Since this new phenomenon in the Pentecostal and Charismatic movements is worthy of generating the academic research of this dissertation, I have tried to describe this new phenomenon as objectively as I can. Thus, I have concluded this research study with objective analysis but eschewing any personal judgment about this new eschatological thinking and its social implications. At the same time, however, it seems to be valid to point out some controversial issues on which they need to elaborate their positions. First, both Paulk and Robertson criticized postmillennialism in public emphasizing their optimism of the future. For this reason, they refused to be categorized as postmillennialists. However, as I examined, their respective eschatologies are also full of many optimistic elements, for example, their positive view of human beings, the power of the Holy Spirit, and the Kingdom of God. Thus, if they want to develop more fully completed eschatological theories, they seem to resolve these theoretical inconsistencies in their common understanding of eschatology. Secondly, Paulk and Robertson began their Charismatic ministries based on the power of the Holy Spirit. In the early years of their ministry, both of them faced considerable attacks and persecutions due to their somewhat extreme Charismatic beliefs such as miracles, the glossolalia, and spiritual warfare. However, as their ministry came to be well-known and more established, their focal points seem to have been transferred from the gift of the Holy Spirit to the fruits of the Holy Spirit. That is, they tend to stress the morality of believers by the grace of the Holy Spirit rather than the miraculous power of the Holy Spirit. If they continue to pursue this direction, they will be likely to lose the spiritual dynamics which made their success possible. That was the history of the Holiness Movement. By overemphasizing strict moral codes at the cost of the doctrine of the baptism with the Holy Spirit, it lost its unique spiritual vitality. But if they adhere to the miraculous power of the Holy Spirit, it will make it more difficult for them to preserve what they have achieved so far by continually adjusting themselves to the religious, cultural mainlines. Its tragic examples are the scandals of Jim Bakker and Jimmy Swaggert. Thirdly, their understanding of other religions, in particular, Oriental religions, are very provocative. In fact, they have actively participated in the ecumenical movement. Paulk has been one of the leading voices to oppose the religious prejudice prevalent in Pentecostalism. He even caused a serious controversy in the Charismatic churches by wearing a clerical collar as a symbol of overcoming religious prejudice and struggle. In the case of Robertson, he often challenged his readers to achieve union with other conservatives who share the same opinions on crucial political, moral issues at the cost of delicate religious differences. However, one cannot see any sign of such remarkable tolerance in their dealings with Oriental religions. Especially, their hostility goes to the extreme when they talk about Hinduism and Islam. For them, those religions are antichrists, satanical, and demonic. Paulk and Robertson just regard them as enemies or rivals to Christianity. In this context, if they maintain such a hostile attitude toward those religions, they will just contribute to worsening the tension between the United States and the Islamic countries in the Middle East. But if they give up such critical views of those religions, their eschatologies, in particular, the part regarding the relationship between Christianity and Other religions in the last days also should be corrected accordingly. Finally, their strict positions regarding the role of women and homosexuality seem to be faced with more mighty attacks from liberal groups. In spite of their official comments on their own enlightened views of women's social activity, their basic conviction in terms of the women's roles is still very conservative. Their ideas that women's most precious roles are wife, mother, and homemaker seem unchangeable. In addition, they have lifted up their highly critical voices against homosexuality. For them, this kind of life style is sinful. There are no more excuses. No more debates. All homosexuals have to change their sinful way of life. However, this matter is not so simple. To condemn such sexuality is not the best policy. Despite their strong objection, women's social activity is also needed, and more opportunities need to be given to them. Also, the number of homosexuals, who are "coming-out" is sky-rocketing. Thus, in this situation, it will be a difficult task to find the contact point between their conservative ethics and pragmatic approach to a complicated reality

Pursuing Peace: Examining Alternative Dispute Resolution Practices Throughout the World's Religious Traditions

Close, Tiernan Sykes ProQuest Dissertations & Theses Drew University 2020 해외박사(DDOD)

Though mediation and conflict resolution are relatively new fields in academia, resolving conflicts is far from anything new. The World’s Religious traditions have constructively negotiated through ancient zones of conflict in their religious communities for thousands of years. This dissertation illustrates that reconciliation practices were indeed highly valued in the Jewish, Christian, Islamic and Buddhist traditions. Faith based dispute resolution practices not only helped to personally and spiritually transform individuals but they also restored damaged relationships and opened up avenues for future peace between those in conflict. Within all of the faiths, there have been agents of peace who serve as viable models for contemporary mediators and agents of conflict resolution. From the practices of Aaron to Buddha, their methods for peacebuilding are remarkably spiritually unique and communally diverse. Universally, one will see that all of the faiths work harmoniously to build a foundation of peace. This dissertation, above all, provides a deeper look into the way that religion has influenced peacemakers and faith-based groups to more diversely develop and carry out their conflict resolution and ADR practices from traditional to contemporary times. Not only is this study meant to further enrich the inter-religious discourse around mediation and ADR, but it also places religiosities in conversation with one another to “develop” a more robust landscape of spiritual resources from which contemporary mediators can draw.

That man need not walk forever in darkness: Medieval romance, science fiction, and fantasy as literary repositories of hope

Keyes, Flo Drew University 2002 해외박사(DDOD)

Reference is often made to the assumed similarities between Medieval romance literature, science fiction, and fantasy. This study attempts to provide substantiation for some of those claims through an analysis of the literature's social function. Jungian psychological principles assert that in times of extreme social disruption and change there is often a concomitant negative psychological reaction. This literature, all written in times of extreme and prolonged social upheaval, allowed people to begin restoring their psychological equilibrium by invoking selected archetypes and casting those archetypes in positive images drawn from the society's culture. The primary archetypes under consideration are the hero, the quest, the wise old man, the child, and the transformation. Selected works from each type of literature are examined and the use of these archetypes in each is explored. It can be seen that authors repeatedly utilized similar images and placed them in like structures, thereby creating works which show that a better future is within man's capabilities, if not now, then someday. In other words, the literature provides hope.

Visions and revisions: Isolation, marginalization and infanticide in Euripides' Medea and Toni Morrison's Beloved

Lawler, Sarah Drew University 2014 해외박사(DDOD)

This dissertation explores infanticide in Euripides' Medea and its more modern interpretation in Toni Morrison's Beloved. Both Medea and Sethe, the protagonists, were influenced by circumstances in their formative years that contributed to their murdering of their children, and both were motivated by their isolation and the socio-economic and political systems in which they lived. The discussion explores the resulting imbalances in both protagonists, their suffering under similar abusive patterns, the role of community versus isolation, the responsibility and consequences of agency, the effect of hubris and fear of ridicule, and the questions of what constitutes failure and success.

The many faces of a national saint : Joan of Arc as a symbol of French identity, 1890--1956

Calman, Rachel Lorraine Drew University 2001 국내박사

CHERNOBYL APOCALYPSE : A THEOLOGICAL CASE STUDY (BELARUS, NUCLEAR ACCIDENT, NIKOLAI BERDYAEV).CHRISTENSEN

CHRISTENSEN, MICHAEL JAMES DREW UNIVERSITY. 1997 국내박사

Empowering patients through health literacy in the Informed Consent process

Riller, Gloria L Drew University 2014 해외박사(DDOD)

Medical terminology can be difficult to understand to individuals who do not normally have a background in science or healthcare. It is a language that describes the parts of the body, diagnosis and medical procedures. Health literacy is an important term to be discussed now and in the future. The general population struggles with understanding health literature, prescriptions given by the physician, the actual medications and instructions given by the pharmacist and reading an informed consent form. Health literacy and the Informed Consent process is an important approach to the practice of medicine. It is important because of the opportunities it can provide to professional staff and patients. The United States has a complex system of healthcare which includes complexity in the understanding of the words that are used in healthcare. There are barriers to effective health communication. There is low or marginal literacy, jargon, stress and increased complexity of self care, cultural and individual learning styles. There are people who have problems with quantitative data such as understanding prescription drug dosages and number of day's a medication should be taken. This dissertation examines the thoughts of clinical research professionals with using health literacy in the informed consent process. The author examines this issue within the context of the historically complex of clinical research, literary works and scientific studies. The results of an original human participants research study are presented that investigate clinical research professional's opinion about health literacy. A questionnaire is used to survey a small group of clinical research professionals who conduct clinical research studies. The questionnaire explores the area of promoting health literacy to apply practical solution to improve patient/provider communication especially in the Informed Consent process. This will result in a more comprehensive and humanistic paradigm for the informed consent process. I will argue that health literacy may be the key to empower patients in the Informed consent process.

Manuel Ayaso : His life and art (Spain)

Tamburro, Barbara Boscaino Drew University 2002 국내박사

The pain economy: Mark Twain's investment in pain

Dixon, M. Christine Benner Drew University 2014 해외박사(DDOD)

Mark Twain's humor draws our eye to scenes of humiliation, physical injury, loss, and suffering. While there is no doubt whether Twain is a successful humorist, the question remains why pain features so prominently in his writing. This dissertation brings together humor studies, masochism research, and literary scholarship to demonstrate how pain becomes currency--characters trade insult for injury, suffering is rewarded with sudden windfalls, and even the reader-author relationship is charged with the exchange of pain. Within the pain economy, taking an interest in pain is commercial good sense, not a sign of neurosis. Mark Twain's creative work is underwritten by the fruitful exchange of pain and pleasure. His natural inclination towards guilt and his ceaseless return to suffering become profitable endeavors. Drawn into the exchange through their pleasure, Twain's readers will be asked to share in the cost--either through monetary payment for the text or through some contribution of pain. The pain economy also comes to represent the ultimate moral measurement for Twain. He lambasts churches, governments, and other social institutions for their failure to provide a balance between pain and payoff for those that fall within their purview. For Twain, morality is defined almost entirely by the exchange of pleasure and pain. His moral heroes are those who suffer without complaint and for the good of others; his villains, any who make their way in the world by exploiting other people's pain personal gain. God provides Twain with his most powerful and exploitative villain, but in an ironic turn, Twain comes to resemble the villain he most despises. As an author, Twain creates an inescapable reality in which his characters suffer at his behest and for his benefit. Through his imitative authorship, Twain reveals the fact that all realities are merely creations of an authorial mind. Although this idea draws dangerously near the void of nihilism, Twain invites his readers to remain within the fiction through investment in the pain economy.

The lives of Saint Patrick: An original screenplay

Bradley, William Lyman Drew University 2014 해외박사(DDOD)

Saint Patrick is a well-recognized figure, as he is celebrated annually on and around March 17th all over the world. However, the historical Patrick has been obscured by centuries of propagandistic hagiography and nationalistic appropriation, making him more myth than man to the general populace. This is evidenced by the filmic representations of the saint (or "hagiopics") produced to date, which are few, unavailable, and inadequate. Since 1912, these motion pictures have done more to portray legend than history, and do not go far enough beyond the traditional purposing of the life of the saint. The story of Patrick deserves to be adapted in a way that makes his history transparent, and his significance more universal for a contemporary audience. The Lives of Saint Patrick is an original feature film screenplay which modernizes the Patrick narrative and creates an alternative hagiopic. It symbolically represents the saint by creating the 21 st century characters Sullivan and Erin Servantes, young Irish/Mexican-Americans who signify how America has changed demographically. It is through Sullivan that the screenplay both relates the known history of Patrick, and also illustrates how conventional hagiopics mislead an audience through the addition of legend and invention of material. It is through Erin that the screenplay explores the humanity within the legacy of Patrick. Erin is abducted and escapes, then joins the present-day anti-human trafficking movement, thereby demonstrating how Patrick's ancient dedication to service and anti-slavery stance are still relevant today. Overall, The Lives of Saint Patrick constructs a modern screen story, remedying misconceptions while popularizing and universalizing Patrick's significance.