Emergent Metaphor Theory: Frequency, Schematic Strength, and the Processing of Metaphorical Utterances

( Daniel Sanford ) 서울대학교 인지과학연구소 2013 Journal of Cognitive Science Vol.14 No.1

Emergent Metaphor Theory, as described in Sanford 2012, asserts that metaphors are schemata that link cognitive domains, that differences in the frequencies of metaphors are a core aspect of metaphorical systems, and that metaphor is operated upon by frequency effects at the level of both overall mappings and individual utterances. This paper presents a corpus study and a series of experiments that support key predictions of Emergent Metaphor Theory. The corpus method makes use of a preliminary survey to elicit core terminology from speakers of English on ten metaphorical source domains; these are used as search terms in identifying similes that instantiate each of ten metaphorical mappings. The survey method supports the assertion that metaphors differ in their frequency, as well as that some terms from a given source domain are used more frequently than others to invoke the mapping. A series of experiments uses the corpus frequencies of metaphors as established in the corpus study to test whether more frequent mappings are more productive, more accessible, and more acceptable to speakers than less frequent metaphors. Both the results of the corpus study and experimental approaches support the view that metaphor is a usage-based phenomenon, and that many of the properties of metaphorical utterances are best accounted for as arising from the interaction of the conceptual schemata that license cross-domain mappings, and syntactic schemata that link meanings to syntactic templates.

The crisis of overcriminalization

Sanford H. Kadish 한국법학원 1972 저스티스 Vol.10 No.1

Legal Control of Police Practices in U.S.

Sanford H. Kadish 한국법학원 1972 한국법학원보 Vol.- No.1

Generative phonology

Sanford A Shane 한국어문학회 1977 語文學 Vol.0 No.36

Salicylated Revisited : Are They Still the Hallmark of Anti-Inflammatory Therapy?

Roth, Sanford H. Medical Publications Korea 1988 Medical Progress Vol.10 No.11

Late Bellow and the Literary Scence : Why More Die of Heartbreak Works and Why It doesn't

Pinsker, Sanford 대전대학교 인문과학연구소 2003 人文科學論文集 Vol.35 No.-

Literature and those who assess its value agree on one point concerning reality : its ability to evade definition. Saul Bellow's protagonist in The Adventures of Augie March recognizes this dilemma when he states : "That's the struggle of humanity, to recruit others to your version of the real"(402). While literary trends continue to introduce new versions of reality, Bellow's fiction continues to pursue the question he first posed in Danling Man, namely-"Where was there a particle [in the decaying urban landscape his protagonist surveys] of what, elsewhere, or in the past, had spoken in man's favor"(24). Saul Bellow, in short, is one of the few contemporary American writers who has remained unwavering in his approach. His success is largely due to the fact that he has been unafraid to emphasize the importance of the "soul' in one's search for the real. In an age of conflicting messages. Bellow remains steadfast in his attempt to discover how one recognizes and then responds to the still, small voice of one's spirit. As Bellow's protagonists often display, well-meaning but ineffectual comic flops far outnumber qualified successes. Take for example Moses Herzog. Here is a man unequipped to deal with the harder edges of reality. What we need, he half-playfully insists, is a "good five-cent synthesis," one that would provide "a new angle on the modern condition, showing how life could be lived by renewing universal connections ; overturning the last of the Romantic errors about the uniqueness of the Self ; revising the old western Faustian ideology ; investigating the social meaning of Nothingness"(Herzog23). While such a powerfully evoked dream causes us to believe Herzog is the right scholar to address this moral dilemma, at the same time we also know that he is unlikely to move his feverish "mental notes" to coherent manuscript pages.

Metaphors are Conceptual Schemata that are Emergent over Tokens of Use

( Daniel R Sanford ) 서울대학교 인지과학연구소 2012 Journal of Cognitive Science Vol.13 No.3

This paper presents the view that metaphors are conceptual schemata that emerge, for individual speakers, over metaphorical tokens of use to which they are exposed, and that the conceptual structures which comprise metaphor are subject to frequency effects. The theory posits that metaphorical conventionalization, at the level of both conceptual metaphors and particular expressions, reflects the operation of linguistic frequency effects. Key properties of metaphor-the unevenness of metaphorical mappings, the gradedness of metaphor, idiosyncracy of meaning for individual expressions, and the emergence of metaphorical ability in children-are accounted for in an exemplar theorybased model of emergence for metaphorical schemata. It is asserted here that a usage-based view of language, and the tools of an approach whereby language processing and storage are seen as driven by frequency effects, provide the best lens for understanding the properties of metaphor in all of its types.

The Role of Linguistic Frequency Effects in Shaping Metaphorical Systems

( Daniel R. Sanford ) 서울대학교 인지과학연구소 2015 Journal of Cognitive Science Vol.16 No.1

The functionalist view of language has arisen from analysis of the effect of repetition on the storage and processing of language at a variety of levels of linguistic structure. Applied to metaphor, the approach places metaphorical conventionalization at the center of our understanding of metaphor, explaining several important aspects of metaphorical systems (their internal systematicity, the gradedness of metaphor, the idiosyncracy of conventionalized metaphorical utterances, and others) as arising from the cumulative effect, over time, of frequency effects at the level of both conceptual mappings and utterances. Ray Gibbs has argued that such a view of metaphor ignores the essential contribution to our understanding of metaphorical systems that comes from semantic factors, and above all else the nature of metaphor as following from embodied cognition. In this article, I respond to several of Gibbs’ major objections to Emergent Metaphor Theory. In responding to these concerns, I take the position that embodiment and other cognitive factors must indeed be included in a full accounting of metaphor. I argue that a frequency-based account of metaphor is fully compatible with semantic factors, and moreover that the aspects of metaphor which follow from frequency effects are essential, defining attributes of metaphorical systems. The functionalist view of language has arisen from analysis of the effect of repetition on the storage and processing of language at a variety of levels of linguistic structure. Applied to metaphor, the approach places metaphorical conventionalization at the center of our understanding of metaphor, explaining several important aspects of metaphorical systems (their internal systematicity, the gradedness of metaphor, the idiosyncracy of conventionalized metaphorical utterances, and others) as arising from the cumulative effect, over time, of frequency effects at the level of both conceptual mappings and utterances. Ray Gibbs has argued that such a view of metaphor ignores the essential contribution to our understanding of metaphorical systems that comes from semantic factors, and above all else the nature of metaphor as following from embodied cognition. In this article, I respond to several of Gibbs’ major objections to Emergent Metaphor Theory. In responding to these concerns, I take the position that embodiment and other cognitive factors must indeed be included in a full accounting of metaphor. I argue that a frequency-based account of metaphor is fully compatible with semantic factors, and moreover that the aspects of metaphor which follow from frequency effects are essential, defining attributes of metaphorical systems.

An Artifact Switching Model for User Acceptance of eBooks

Clive Carlton Sanford HERSHEY 2013 JOURNAL OF ORGANIZATIONAL AND END USER COMPUTING Vol.25 No.2

A comparison of neural networks to ols regression in process/quality control applications

Nam, Kyungdoo,Sanford, Clive C.,Jayakumar, Maliyakal D. The Korean Operations Research and Management Scie 1994 經營 科學 Vol.11 No.2

This study compares the performance of neural networks and ordinary least squares regression with quality-control processes. We examine the applicability of neural networks because they do not require any assumptions regarding either the functional from of the underlying process or the distribution of errors. The coefficient of determination($R^2$), mean absolute deviation(MAD), and the mean squared error(MSE) metrics indicate that neural networks are a viable and can be a superior technique. We also demonstrate that an assessment of the magnitude of the neural notwork input layer cumulative weights can be used to determine the relative importance of predictor variables.