The End of Coal in the United States?

Melissa Powers 강원대학교 비교법학연구소 2018 환경법과 정책 Vol.21 No.-

미국 전력 시스템이 구축된 이래로 1800년대 후반부터 20세기 초반까지 석탄은 미국에 상당한 양의 에너지를 공급해 왔다. 의회가 1969년 NEPA 법을 통과한 뒤 에너지 프로젝트는 환경영향평가를 받게 되었다. 미국은 1970년의 청정대기법(CAA)과 1972년의 청정수질법(CWA)을 입법하며 오염주범인 석탄 및 석유 발전소들을 규제하기 시작하였다. 원자력과 재생가능에너지(규모는 작지만)는 화석연료를 대체할 준비를 시작하였다. 이론적으로 미국의 환경법의 발전은, 특히 과학자와 규제기관이 인간의 건강과 환경에 미치는 석탄 오염의 유해한 영향을 보다 명확하게 이해하기 시작했기 때문에 석탄 채굴 및 사용의 확장을 제한했어야 했다. 그러나 환경규제들은 기본적으로 미국의 에너지 믹스에 영향을 주기에는 너무나도 약했다. 청정대기법이 약 30년간 지속된 1990년대 후반까지 석탄화력발전은 사실 깨끗하지도, 보다 효율적이지도 않았다. 미국의 석탄 붐(coal rush)은 2001년 에너지 회사와 전력회사가 수십 개를 건설하기 시작하면서 200개가 넘는 새로운 석탄발전소를 건설하기 시작하며 나타났다. 이러한 상황의 몇 가지 요인은, 에너지 소비 예측이 전기소비량이 크게 증가할 것이라는 점과 부시 행정부의 석탄발전소에 대한 환경 규제 최소화 결정 등이었다. 그러나 석탄화력발전소에 대한 환경단체(시에라클럽)의 반대운동은 오바마 행정부에서 석탄화력발전소에 대한 오염물질 배출규제를 목적으로 하는 규칙을 채택하기에 이르렀고, 에너지 시장 역시 천연가스와 재생에너지 가격의 하락으로 석탄에 대해 덜 우호적이게 되었다. 또한 규제당국도 전력회사가 석탄화력발전소에 투자하는 것을 허용함으로 인해 전기소비자의 리스크가 점차 커질 수 있다는 점을 인식하기 시작했다. 트럼프 행정부가 취임 한 이래, 환경규제의 역행(roll back), 석탄개발 및 석탄수출을 촉진하는 새로운 명령, 그리고 석탄 및 원자력이 경쟁력을 잃은 에너지 시장을 두 번이나 교란하는 등 석탄 사업을 부활시키기 위해 노력해 왔다. 그러나 오히려 트럼프 행정부 첫 해 동안 재생가능한 자원에 의해 공급된 전력의 비율은 계속 증가했으며, 단기 에너지 예측에 따라도 재생 에너지가 계속 증가할 것으로 예상된다. 석탄의 시대가 끝이 오고 이러한 정황을 긍정적으로 바라봄과 동시에 미국의 탈석탄 전환의 이야기는 여러 가지 면에서 주의를 요구한다. 첫째, 수십 년에 걸친 부적절한 규제로 기후, 환경 및 인간 건강에 치명적인 영향을 미쳤다는 점, 둘째, 재생에너지가 정부의 개입이 아니었다면 훨씬 더 일찍 석탄 및 천연가스와 가격경쟁력을 가졌을 것이라는 점, 그리고 마지막으로 재생가능 및 저장 기술은 신뢰할만한 수준이며, 기후변화는 화석연료에 대한 새로운 투자를 위험하게 만들 정도로 충분히 위험하다는 점이다. 앞으로 정부는 석탄에서 탄소제로 에너지원으로 전환하는 과정에서 미국의 시행착오를 건너뛸 수 있는 에너지 계획을 수립해야 한다. Since the establishment of the U.S. electricity system in the late 1800s through the first half of the 20th century, coal supplied a substantial amount of U.S. energy. Congress had passed the National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA) in 1969, which subjected many new energy projects to environmental review. The passage of the Clean Air Act in 1970 and the Clean Water Act in 1972 seemed destined to restrict pollution from many of the country’s dirty coal-and oil-fired power plants. Nuclear power, and to a much lesser extent, renewable energy, were waiting in the wings, ready to displace fossil fuels. In theory, the development of U.S. environmental laws should have limited the expansion of coal mining and use, particularly as scientists and regulatory agencies began to develop a clearer understanding of the harmful effects of coal pollution on human health and the environment. Environmental regulations, however, were generally too weak to affect the energy mix of the United States. By the late-1990s, despite nearly 30 years of Clean Air Act regulation, coal plants had not become substantially cleaner or more efficient. The U.S. coal rush appears to have gotten its start in 2001, when energy companies and electric utilities initiated efforts to build dozens, and then more than 200, new coal-fired power plants. Some of the factors in this situation were that energy consumption forecasts would significantly increase electricity consumption and the Bush administrations decision to minimize environmental regulations for coal-fired power plants. However, opposition movements by environmental groups(Sierra Club) to coal-fired power plants have led to the Obama administration adopting rules aimed at regulating pollutant emissions to coal-fired power plants. The energy market also showed a less favorable situation for coal due to dropping prices of natural gas and renewable energy. And also, state regulators began to recognize the risks to ratepayers of allowing utilities to invest in new coal-fired power plants. Since taking office, the Trump Administration has tried to revive the coal industry, through regulatory rollbacks, new orders that promote coal exploration on federal lands and coal exports to foreign countries, and through two assaults on competitive wholesale energy markets in which coal and nuclear power plants are no longer competitive. Nevertheless, the percentage of electricity supplied by renewable resources continued to climb during the first year of the Trump Administration, and short-term energy forecasts suggested that renewables would continue to grow. While it appears that the end of coal is finally coming, and while we should look at coal’s end as a positive development, the U.S. transition away from coal should serve as a cautionary tale in many ways. First, the decades of inadequate regulation have had devastating impacts on the climate, the environment, and human health. Second, although renewable energy has finally become cost-competitive with coal and natural gas, it is likely this would have happened much earlier, if not for the intervention of the government. Third, renewable and storage technologies have advanced enough to be reliable, and climate change has advanced enough to make any new investments in fossil fuels risky. Governments should therefore develop energy plans that will leapfrog over coal to zero-carbon sources.

Constitutional Aspects Of The Career of J. Edgar Hoover

Powers, Richard Gid 한국아메리카학회 1988 美國學論集 Vol.19 No.-

CONSENSUS N-TREES AND REMOVAL INDEPENDENCE

Powers, R.C. Korean Mathematical Society 2000 대한수학회지 Vol.37 No.3

Removal independence is a translation of Arrow's axiom of independence of irrelevant alternatives for social welfare functions to an axiom about consensus functions involving n-trees. It is shown that a consensus function is removal independent if and only if it is expressible as th union of three types of functions.

Application of Neural Networks in Aluminum Corrosion

Powers, John,Ali, M. Masoom The Korean Data and Information Science Society 2000 한국데이터정보과학회지 Vol.11 No.2

Metal containers represent a situation where a specific metal is exposed to a wide variety of electrolytes of varying degrees of corrosivity. For example, hundreds, if not thousands of different products are packaged in an aluminum beverage can. These products vary in pH, chloride concentration and other natural or artificial ingredients which can effect the type and severity of potential corrosion. Both localized (perforation) and uniform corrosion (metal dissolution without the onset of pitting) may occur in the can. A quick test or series of tests which could predict the propensity towards both types of corrosion would be useful to the manufacturer. Electrochemical noise data is used to detect the onset and continuation of pitting corrosion. Specific noise parameters such as the noise resistance (the potential noise divided by the current noise) have been used to both detect pitting corrosion and also to estimate the pitting severity. The utility of noise resistance and other electrochemical parameters has been explored through the application of artificial neural networks. The versatility of artificial neural networks is further demonstrated by combing electrochemical data with electrolyte properties such as pH and chloride concentration to predict both the severity of both localized and uniform corrosion.

Cost Saving Strategy and Wellness Programs Featuring Decision Tree, Utility and Analytical Hierarchy Analysis

James Powers,Mehmet C. Kocakü,lâ,h People&Global Business Association 2015 Global Business and Finance Review Vol.20 No.2

Paying for healthcare is a challenge for employers and employees alike. As companies strive to find ways to reduce costs, comprehensive wellness programs are one way to control rising health care premiums. Healthy employees require less medical attention and are they less costly to insure. Cost savings are measured uantitatively and qualitatively. Here we are going try to make clear in analysis that positive financial returns on investment in a wellness center facility are possible. The exploration will also demonstrate decisions that go beyond ROI. To gain insight into probable outcomes, decision tree methods, Bayes’ Theorem, utility analysis, and analytical hierarchy process methods are used. Analysis from multiple perspectives, using various approaches, may result in to help decision makers more informed decision. Wellness programs increase productivity, reduce absenteeism, and create a happier work environment. Taking care of employees and encouraging wellness in our companies is the right thing to do and increase profitability

Application of Neural Networks in Aluminum Corrosion

John Powers,M . Masoom Ali 한국데이터정보과학회 2000 한국데이터정보과학회지 Vol.11 No.2

Metal containers represent a situation where a specific metal is exposed to a wide variety of electrolytes of varying degrees of corrosivity. For example, hundreds, if not thousands of different products are packaged in an aluminum beverage can. These products vary in pH, chloride concentration and other natural or artificial ingredients which can effect the type and severity of potential corrosion. Both localized (perforation) and uniform corrosion (metal dissolution without the onset of pitting) may occur in the can. A quick test or series of tests which could predict the propensity towards both types of corrosion would be useful to the manufacturer. Electrochemical noise data is used to detect the onset and continuation of pitting corrosion. Specific noise parameters such as the noise resistance (the potential noise divided by the current noise) have been used to both detect pitting corrosion and also to estimate the pitting severity. The utility of noise resistance and other electrochemical parameters has been explored through the application of artificial neural networks. The versatility of artificial neural networks is further demonstrated by combing electrochemical data with electrolyte properties such as pH and chloride concentration to predict both the severity of both localized and uniform corrosion.

The North American Long-term Soil Productivity Experiment: Findings from a Long-term, Large-Scale Study

Robert Powers,Mary Beth Adams,Robert Fleming,Andrew Scott,Deborah Page-Dumroese,David Morris,Shannon Berch 한국토양비료학회 2014 한국토양비료학회 학술발표회 초록집 Vol.2014 No.6

Citizen Suits in U.S. Environmental Law

Melissa Powers 강원대학교 비교법학연구소 2013 환경법과 정책 Vol.11 No.-

시민은 오랫동안 미국통치(governance)에 직접적인 역할을 해 왔지만, 특히 시민 소송제도의 활용은 환경정책의 개발과 이행에 있어서 시민이 강력한 역할을 할 수 있게 하였다. 시민소송은 행정절차법(Administrative Procedure Act, APA)상 시민이 정부 행위의 작위와 부작위에 관해 이의를 제기할 능력을 부여한 조항에 뿌리를 두고 있으며 개별 환경실체법을 통해 시민들에게 정부, 그리고 직접적인 환경오염 원자를 제소할 수 있는 보다 강력한 권리로 자리매김하였다. 본고는 미국의 시민소송을 개괄하고, 시민소송이 환경법에 미친 영향을 살펴볼 것이다. Ⅱ장에서는 미국이 인정하고 있는 일반적인 시민소송의 세 가지 유형(정부 기관의 조치에 대한 이의제기, 기관의 이행을 강제하는 소송, 규제 대상기관에 대한 시민강제조치)을 소개할 것이다. Ⅲ장에서는 시민이 소송을 제기하기 위해 넘어야 하는 법적 장애물 중 일부를 논할 것이다. Ⅳ장에서는 미국 환경법 내에서의 시민소송의 역할에 대한 간단한 평가로 마무리할 것이다. 지난 40년간의 시민집행제도는 여전히 미국의 권력분립과 대의민주주의 원칙에서 논쟁의 주제이다. 그럼에도 불구하고 시민환경소송은 계속해서 향후 미국의 사법제도와 정치제도 전반에 걸쳐 중요한 영향을 줄 것임에 분명하다. Citizens have long played a direct role in U.S. governance, but the availability of citizen suits has allowed citizens to have a particularly strong part in environmental policy development and implementation. Citizens have the ability to influence and challenge government decisions under the Administrative Procedure Act (APA), which allows interested parties to challenge both federal agency actions and inaction in certain contexts. Substantive environmental statutes also allow citizens to challenge agency conduct. This article will provide an overview of U.S. citizen suitsand explore how they have influenced environmental law. Part II of this article will introduce the three general types of citizen actions that U.S. authorizes: challenges to agency actions; suits seeking to compel agency action; and citizen enforcement actions against regulated entities. Part III will discuss some of the legal hurdles citizens must clear to bring their cases before court. Part IV will conclude with a brief evaluation of the role of citizen suits in U.S. environmental law. Yet, even after 40 years of citizen enforcement, debates continue about whether citizens should continue to play such a role in U.S. governance and compliance. It is unlikely that debates about the priority of citizen enforcement will abate any time soon. It is safe to say, however, that environmental citizen suits will continue to influence the U.S. legal and political system for years to come.

RUSTS OF PINES IN NORTH AMERICAL

H . R . Powers,Jr 한국산림과학회 1985 한국산림과학회지 Vol.71 No.1

The rust fungi infecting North American pines fall into four genera: Cronartium, Endocronartium, Cnleosporium, and Melampsora. Those in the genus Cronartium cause the majority of economic losses. Included in this genus are the introduced species C. ribicofa on white or soft pines, and the native C. quercuum f. sp. fusiforme, on the southern hard pines. These two rusts are the most damaging tree diseases in northwestern and southeastern United States, respectively. Other important Cronartium rusts include comandra (C. comandrae), sweetfern (C. comptoniae), eastern gall (C. quercuum f. sp. banksianae), and southern cone rust (C. strobilinum). Western gall rust or $quot;pine-to-pine rust$quot; (Endocronartium harknessii) is also a serious disease of hard pines in both the western United States and Canada, and eastward across the continent to the Atlantic coast. This rust is interesting because it possibly poses a threat to the commercially important southern pine forests in the southeastern United States. Needle rusts of hard pines are caused by many different species of Coleosporium, all but a few having herbaceous alternate hosts. Several other needle rusts of western hard pines are caused by Melampsora species. With few exceptions the needle rusts cause only slight to moderate economic losses, although no critical studies have been made on the impact of these diseases. In general, the various stem rusts are by far the most economically important of rust fungi, with cone rust occasionally causing heavy losses in seed orchards. Current research on North American rusts is heavily oriented toward work on white pine blister rust in the north-central and western United States and Canada and on fusiform rust in the southeastern United States. There is increasing interest, however, in western gall rust on several species of western pines, including Pinus radiata. This latter work is related to the extensive plantings of P. radiata in New Zealand and Australia. Another recent area of interest is the damage being caused in Central America by a rust, possibly cone rust, in forest tree nurseries.

FUSIFORM RUST INFECTION ON LOBLOLLY PINE RELATED TO TIP MOTH DAMAGE

H . R . Powers,Jr,D . M . Stone 한국산림과학회 1985 한국산림과학회지 Vol.71 No.1

Nantucket pine tip moth (Rhyacionia frustrana) is a common pest over most of the natural range of loblolly pine, causing deformation and growth reduction of seedlings and saplings during the early life of the stand. Most studies have been conducted on stands 10 years of age or younger, but in general, differences between stands with and without tip moth control decrease with time. Because of this, tip moth is usually tolerated by forest managers. In contrast, fusiform rust (caused by Cronartium quercuum f. sp. fusiforme) is a limiting factor in the production of southern pines throughout a broad area of the southeastern United States, extending from South Carolina to Texas. The target areas on the hosts for both pests are young, succulent shoot tissues. Carbofuran, a systemic insecticide, was used in this study to determine the effect of controlling tip moth on seedlings in fected by the fusiform rust organism. Beginning with the 2nd year of the study, carbofuran was applied over 4 successive years. The insecticide sharply reduced the incidence of tip moth and increased the height of 5-year-old saplings compared with untreated controls. Usually any treatment that stimulates the growth of pines also results in increased rest infection. However, this was not the case here because untreated saplings had significantly more infection. It is not known whether the increased disease incidence on untreated trees was due to the susceptibility and/or total number of secondary shoots initiated in response to tip dieback caused by the tip moth, or if carbofuran itself has some fungicidal effect resulting in lower infection on treated seedlings.