A FORMATIVE MEASURE OF VERY YOUNG CHILDREN’S PERSUASION KNOWLEDGE

Shasha Wang,Dick Mizerski,Fang Liu,Doina Olaru,Victoria Mallinckrodt 글로벌지식마케팅경영학회 2016 Global Marketing Conference Vol.2016 No.7

Introduction An individual’s Persuasion Knowledge is his or her knowledge of the persuasive nature of messages (Freisted and Wright 1994). Most adults are assumed to have this knowledge that enables them to be sceptical of persuasive messages, and to incorporate this information in their decision-making about promoted products. Children are viewed as vulnerable to persuasive messages (Nelson 2016) because they have not developed the appropriate knowledge base to be sceptical of messages (Mallinckrodt and Mizerski 2007) and thus unable to discount the claims made by marketers. This lack of ability to be sceptical is argued to lead to “…the vulnerability of young audiences to the negative effects of advertising” (Nelson 2016, p. 169) like obesity, materialism, poor quality of life and higher rates of mortality. Because of the wide acceptance that young children are particularly vulnerable to persuasive messages, advertising targeting children has been banned in several countries and proposed for others (Mizerski et al. 2016; Wang 2016). Many studies about Persuasion Knowledge or Advertising Knowledge (communication research) have been published over the 40 plus years since Ward (1972) first discussed the concept. However, few studies have tested whether Persuasion Knowledge is an antecedent to children’s sceptical responses to persuasive messages. The 11 studies that have tested the link (see Mizerski et al. (2016) for a review) used a wide variety of single item or reflective measures (measures that reflect the construct). They provide inconsistent findings except that the child’s age is positively associated with acquiring knowledge about persuasive messages like advertising or playing advergames. For example, while most researchers assumed or argued a positive link between young children’s persuasion knowledge and their scepticism, Buijzen (2007) and Christenson (1982) failed to find this link. Robertson and Rossiter (1974) reported children’s understanding of persuasive intent (commercials persuade one to buy things) was positively related with young children’s scepticism, but assistive intent (commercials tell one about things) was negatively related. The inconsistent findings of children’s responses to commercial messages may be due to more than the lack of consistent measures. The use of reflective rather than formative measure of young children’s persuasion knowledge may be another reason for inconsistent findings. “Young” children are those under eight years old (Mizerski 1) shashaatperth@gmail.com et al. 2016), but a lack of sufficient persuasion knowledge has been found with children over 16 years old (Carter et al. 2011). Most recent studies have adopted the Freisted and Wright (1994) Persuasion Knowledge Model that is based on the information processing of an adult buyer. Adults tend to have obtained Persuasion Knowledge so their knowledge may be captured with measures that reflect the construct. Young children are in the process of obtaining Persuasion Knowledge. The ability to understand the source of the message and the persuasive intent of the source are often cited as antecedents to having Persuasion Knowledge. These constructs form over time and cause persuasion knowledge (Nelson 2016). Therefore, it should be a formative measure. Measuring social class is a classical formative measure because causal elements like where you live and your profession can’t be accurately calculated for children. Social class forms over time. The use of a reflective measure when a formative measure should be used leads to several problems (Diamantopoulos and Siguaw 2006; Diamantopoulos and Winklhofer 2001), particularly an increase in Type II errors-“false negatives” (MacKenzie, Podsakoff and Jarvis 2005). For example, this means ruling out a causal element of persuasion knowledge when it is causal. This paper will compare existing single item or multi-item reflective measures used with young children, with a formative measure of the Persuasive Knowledge construct. The best way to validate a construct is to test it with external variables empirically and theoretically linked to the construct, including both antecedents and consequences (Diamantopoulos and Winklhofer 2001). Three variables, theoretically and/or empirically linked with young children’s Persuasion Knowledge, are tested in a baseline model to assess the external validity of the construct. These variables are age (Ward 1972), responses toward persuasive marketing messages (such as scepticism) and affect toward the persuasive messages (Mizerski et al. 2016; Wang 2016). Therefore, it is expected that the goodness-of-fit measures for the model using the formative measure of young children’s Persuasion Knowledge will provide a better fit to the data than the reflective measures. To further test the formative nature of young children’s Persuasion Knowledge, two additional models are tested. Researchers are responsible to set the weights of indicators of a formative construct, so a formative model with expert knowledge weights is developed (Figure 1). The indicators or elements of a formative construct should be able to reveal different facets so another model with different facets is developed. Consistent findings of the two models and the proposed baseline model will further support the formative nature of this construct. Apart from content validity and external validity, we also test the measures of the construct with another data set (Mallinckrodt and Mizerski 2007) to test the models’ generalisability. The Mallinckrodt and Mizerski study used children from a different cultural background (Australian vs. Chinese young children), but have similar ages and measures of Persuasion Knowledge and external variables. Further confirmation of the structure of the measurement model is provided if the same relationships are found with the second data set. Methodology Sample The population to be sampled are young Chinese children. China was selected because it has the largest population of young children, is the largest market for toys and a children’s toy is the stimulus product in the experimental study. The sample frame is day care schools in a Northern Chinese city of approximately eight million people. Procedure This is an experiment-based study with a control group. After individual exposure to a toy TV advertisement for a “magic ruler” that can be made into many different shapes with a Dinosaur shape shown in the ad, participants were each asked to answer questions. Cartoon pictures of the question options accompanied by verbal statements were used to reduce the possibility of misunderstanding young children’s responses on Persuasion Knowledge related questions. To reduce any effects of young children choosing the first option they see, pictures or options were shown in a random order. Children were told that there is no right or wrong answer, and they could withdraw at any point. Measures Persuasion knowledge was measured three ways; including a single-item measure, a summated-items measure, and a formative measure. Through an analysis and coding of 20 studies that tested the effect of young children’s persuasion knowledge (Mizerski et al. 2016), six items were found to measure the Persuasion Knowledge construct. The single-item measure used is the children’s understanding of the advertisers’ intention to make them ask their parents to buy (parent-buying intent). This was treated as the most important aspect of persuasion knowledge by several researchers (Carter et al. 2011; Mallinckrodt and Mizerski 2007). A summated-items measure included six items, frequently used in prior scholarly work. The formative measurement model was built using the same six items but by changing the direction of influence, with the causal flow from measures to the construct. Other variables include the children’s scepticism, their belief of false claims made in the ad and affect toward the toy TV advertisement (see Figure). After a CFA analysis with five questions, the scepticism factor score was derived as a standardised measure that followed a normal distribution. Scepticism ranged from -0.59 to 1.35, with an average of 0.07 and SD of 0.68. Belief of false claims (named as “false beliefs”) shown in the TV advertisement indicated that most children did not believe the two false claims included in the ad (84% and 69% respectively). Affect towards the toy TV ad was measured using one question: “Do you like this video?” to which most children (88%) indicated yes. Results, Discussion And Implication Fifty-four different patterns or combinations of the six persuasion knowledge items were found. This pattern show substantial heterogeneity in children’s Persuasion Knowledge, and further illustrates that young children are accumulating or forming their Persuasion Knowledge (Friestad and Wright 1994). In addition, these items have low correlations to one another that are typical of a formative measure. These findings of variability of knowledge levels and weak association between them indicate the potential multiple-dimension, formative nature of the construct of persuasion knowledge for young children. This may apply specifically to young children who are at the stage of increasing their learning abilities and developing or forming their knowledge. No relationship was found in the structural models using the reflective single-item measure and summated-items measure of persuasion knowledge, and the models showed a poor fit. However, relationships were found in the structural model that applied the formative measure of persuasion knowledge, with good model fit (see Table 1). Because a formative measure is supported, we tested the formative nature of Persuasion Knowledge on a previous study’s data (Mallinckrodt and Mizerski 2007). A formative model using that study’s data showed the same relationships between Persuasion Knowledge and its external variables. This consistency supports a formative measure of young children’s persuasion knowledge. Any review of future or past research should note the possible impact of using reflective measures of young children’s Persuasive Knowledge. To generalise the findings more research needs to be done for different product categories and age groups. More product categories, such as food and movies, and age groups could be taken into consideration. While few studies have tested the association of young children’s Persuasion Knowledge to scepticism toward the message, even fewer have tested the link of scepticism to young children’s responses to the advertised product (e.g. like, prefer, choose). Most of these studies do not find a link. If having Persuasion Knowledge doesn’t influence a young child’s desire for the brand, why teach it (e.g. Nelson 2016) or ban advertising because the children don’t have Persuasion Knowledge? Perhaps using a formative measure the link will be found.

Magnetic Nano-structured Polymeric Composite Obtained Using Nano-magnetic Fluids

N. Crainic,Doina Bica,A. Torres Marques,N. C. Popa,P. J. Novoa,N. Correia,Oana Marinica,C. P. Moreira de Sa,L. VeKas 한국자기학회 2007 한국자기학회 학술연구발표회 논문개요집 Vol.- No.-

Photoprotective Effects of Two Natural Products on Ultraviolet B–Induced Oxidative Stress and Apoptosis in SKH-1 Mouse Skin

Adriana Filip,Doina Daicoviciu,Simona Clichici,Teodora Mocan,Adriana Muresan,Ion Dan Postescu 한국식품영양과학회 2011 Journal of medicinal food Vol.14 No.7

Solar ultraviolet radiation (UV) is the major cause of nonmelanoma skin cancer in humans. Photochemoprevention with natural products represents a simple but very effective strategy for the management of cutaneous neoplasia. We studied the photoprotective activity of Calluna vulgaris and red grape seed (Vitis vinifera L, Burgund Mare variety [BM]) extracts in vivo in an SKH-1 hairless mice skin model. Fifty 8-week-old female SKH-1 hairless mice were randomly divided into 5 groups (n = 10 each): controls, UVB-irradiated, C. vulgaris plus UVB–irradiated, BM plus UVB–irradiated, and epigallocatechin gallate (EGCG) plus UVB–irradiated. A dose of 4 mg/mouse per ㎠ of skin area for both extracts was topically applied to the mice 30 minutes before a single-dose (240 mJ/㎠) UVB exposure. EGCG dissolved in phosphate-buffered saline (pH 6.6; 0.067 M) was administered at 2 mg/mouse per ㎠. Glutathione peroxidase and catalase activities, reduced glutathione (GSH), malondialdehyde, nitric oxide, and caspase 3 activity were determined in skin homogenates 24 hours after irradiation. A single dose of UVB increased GSH levels and glutathione peroxidase activity in the exposed skin. C. vulgaris and BM pretreatment significantly decreased GSH formation and glutathione peroxidase activity (P < .001) and inhibited UVB-induced lipid peroxidation (P < .0001) and nitric oxide production (C. vulgaris: P < .06). Topical treatments with C. vulgaris and particularly BM extracts (P < .002) significantly reduced caspase 3 activity, indicating that the cells were protected against apoptosis. These results suggest that C. vulgaris and BM extracts might be chemopreventive candidates for reducing UV-induced risk for skin cancer.

Synthesis, Characterization of Erythromycin Propionate Core-Based Star Poly(ether urethane)s and Their Antibacterial Properties

Daniela Filip,Doina Macocinschi,Cristina Gabriela Tuchilus,Mirela Fernanda Zaltariov,Cristian Dragos Varganici 한국고분자학회 2021 Macromolecular Research Vol.29 No.9

New four-arm star poly(ether urethanes) (star PUs) based on erythromycin propionate core are presented. Toluene 2,4-diisocyanate (TDI) and 4,4’-methylenebis (phenyl isocyanate) (MDI) as diisocyanates and Terathane of different molecular weights as polyether arms were employed in their synthesis in order to study their structure-property relationship. The synthesized star PUs were analyzed through IR and 1H NMR spectroscopies, gel permeation chromatography, X-ray diffraction, thermogravimetry, differential scanning calorimetry. The IR spectral changes obtained on heating the samples were investigated. Disc-diffusion method was employed for antimicrobial tests. The values of the glass transition temperature are higher than those of starting polyethers attributable to the influence of the more rigid erythromycin propionate core bearing urethane groups. The melting temperatures corresponding to soft polyether arms are in the melting temperature range of starting polyethers. At higher temperatures melting phenomena associated to hard urethane core are obtained. The IR spectra recorded at various temperatures reveal that the composition of the hard segment having MDI in the structure ensures higher conformation stability during heating process. The crystalline peaks in the X-ray diffractograms are consequence of polyether arms crystallinity. MDI and higher polyether molecular weight increase the thermal stability. The values of hydrodynamic radii increase with increasing polyether arm length and are higher for TDI star PUs than MDI star PU because of the expanded structures of the former ones. The antibacterial study reveals that for hospital S. aureus strain the diameters of inhibition zones are lower than for S. aureus ATCC 25923.

Leakage-free Rotating Seal Systems with Magnetic Nanofluids and Magnetic Composite Fluids Designed for Various Applications

Borbath, Tunde,Bica, Doina,Potencz, Iosif,Borbath, Istvan,Boros, Tibor,Vekas, Ladislau Korean Society for Fluid machinery 2011 International journal of fluid machinery and syste Vol.4 No.1

Recent results are presented concerning the development of magnetofluidic leakage-free rotating seals for vacuum and high pressure gases, evidencing significant advantages compared to mechanical seals. The micro-pilot scale production of various types of magnetizable sealing fluids is shortly reviewed, in particular the main steps of the chemical synthesis of magnetic nanofluids and magnetic composite fluids with light hydrocarbon, mineral oil and synthetic oil carrier liquids. Design concepts and some constructive details of the magnetofluidic seals are discussed in order to obtain high sealing capacity. Different types of magnetofluidic sealing systems and applications are reviewed. Testing procedures and equipment are presented, as well as the sealing capabilities of different types of magnetizable fluids.

Naphthalene sublimation. Experiment and optimisation based on neuro-evolutionary methodology

Silvia Curteanu,Mirela Smarandoiu,Doina Horoba,Florin Leon 한국공업화학회 2014 Journal of Industrial and Engineering Chemistry Vol.20 No.4

This paper presents experimental and simulation studies on spherical samples of naphthalene sublimation in the presence of air as driving agent. The mass transfer rates and the influence of air flow characteristics on mass transfer are investigated. The degree of sublimation and sublimation front position as function of time are also determined. A modelling and optimisation strategy based on neural networks and genetic algorithms, designed in simple and adaptive variants, is developed and applied for determining optimal working conditions which lead to the maximisation or minimisation of sublimation rate. Accurate results are obtained proving the efficiency of the neuro-evolutionary methodology.

Grape Seed Extract Effects in Brain After Hypobaric Hypoxia

Adriana Muresan,Soimita Suciu,Doina Daicoviciu,Adriana Gabriela Filip,Simona Clichici 한국식품영양과학회 2013 Journal of medicinal food Vol.16 No.9

Hypoxia induces a wide range of deleterious effects at the cellular level due to an increased production of reactive oxygen species (ROS). Polyphenols from grape seeds, which are potent antioxidants might protect the brain against oxidative stress produced by hypobaric hypoxia. The brain effects of three doses of grape seed extract intraperitoneally (i.p.)administered in rats after exposure to hypobaric hypoxia corresponding to 5500m altitude were investigated. Some oxygen and nitrogen reactive species, inflammatory cytokine (IL-6) and molecules involved in angiogenesis (vascular endothelial growth factor [VEGF], matrix metalloproteinase 2 [MMP2], and tissue inhibitors of metalloproteinase 1 [TIMP1]) were determined. Forty-two rats were divided in seven groups: group 1, control; groups 2, 3, and 4 were exposed to hypobaric hypoxia for 24 h in a hypobaric chamber; groups 5, 6, and 7 were exposed to hypobaric hypoxia for 5 days. After returning to normal atmospheric pressure, rats from groups 2 and 5 were sacrificed without other treatment. Animals from groups 3and 6 were i.p treated with carboxymethyl cellulose (CMC) vehicle and those from groups 4 and 7 were i.p. treated with grape seed extract (GSE) (50 mg gallic acid equivalents/kg body weight in 0.5mL CMC suspension/animal). The treatment was applied at 2, 24, and 72 h from returning to normoxia. Hypobaric hypoxia produced increased brain levels of ROS,nitric oxide (NO), IL-6, and VEGF after both time intervals (P < .05). The MMP2 concentration was significantly increased in groups treated only with vehicle, whereas TIMP1 was slightly changed. GSE produced a significant reduction of ROS and NO levels proving its antioxidant capacity. It also decreased IL-6 and MMP2 concentrations to values similar to controls. The VEGF concentration was also significantly reduced. These effects are indicative for anti-inflammatory and antiangiogenic properties of GSE.

Ohmic Treatment of Apple Puree (Golden Delicious Variety) in Relation to Product Quality

Oana-Viorela Nistor,Nicoleta Stãnciuc,Doina Georgeta Andronoiu,Elisabeta Botez,Gabriel Dãnuţ Mocanu 한국식품과학회 2015 Food Science and Biotechnology Vol.24 No.1

Inactivation of pectin methyl esterase was evaluated using thermal and ohmic treatments. Kinetics of enzyme inactivation in crude extracts during thermal treatment was described by a first order model yielding an activation energy of 202.52±25.86 kJ/mol. Pectin methylesterase was inactivated more rapidly by an ohmic treatment than by heating. A gradient of 25 V/cm was used to evaluate ohmic induced changes in color, reducing sugar concentrations, mineral and total polyphenolic contents, and rheological and morphological properties. A pseudo-plastic behavior was observed and the Power law was considered adequate to describe apple puree behavior. Minimal changes in physico-chemical parameters occurred. Ohmic treatment can be used in food processing and bioengineering for inactivation of quality-degrading enzymes and retention of health-related compounds and extension of the shelf-life.

Highly Luminescent Polystyrene Embedded CdSe Quantum Dots Obtained through a Modified Colloidal Synthesis Route

Corneliu S. Stan,Marius S. Secula,Doina Sibiescu 대한금속·재료학회 2012 ELECTRONIC MATERIALS LETTERS Vol.8 No.3

The present work describes a modified colloidal synthesis route for the preparation of CdSe nanocrystals,which were further embedded in a polystyrene matrix. Used as a reaction medium, glycerin makes it possible to obtain nanocrystals at lower temperatures in all process stages and an easier separation from the reaction mass. The influence of two different cadmium compounds used as primary cadmium sources over the quality of synthesized CdSe nanocrystals is established. Having a double role, namely in the formation of a cadmium precursor and that of a surface capping agent, three saturated monocarboxylic fatty acids are tested. The synthesis path is refined by evaluating the luminescent properties of CdSe nanocrystals resulting from each test. The obtained CdSe nanocrystals were further embedded in a polystyrene matrix, resulting in a highly luminescent composite. The solution-processed highly luminescent composite might be used as a conversion layer in various optoelectronic devices.

Modulation of Doxorubicin-Induced Oxidative Stress by a Grape (Vitis vinifera L.) Seed Extract in Normal and Tumor Cells

Ion Dan Postescu,Gabriela Chereches,Corina Tatomir,Doina Daicoviciu,Gabriela Adriana Filip 한국식품영양과학회 2012 Journal of medicinal food Vol.15 No.7

The major limitation of Doxorubicin (Dox) clinical use is the development of chronic and acute toxic side effects induced through the generation of reactive oxygen species. The present work was designated to investigate in vitro effects of a red grape-seed hydroethanolic extract Burgund Mare (BM), in associated administration with Dox (30 min before drug administration) in normal (Hfl-1) and tumor cell lines (HepG2 and Mls). The BM concentrations administered were below the level of the extract cytotoxiciy threshold (40 lg gallic acid [GA] Eq/mL; 37.5, 25.0, and 12.5 lg GA Eq/mL). The antioxidant capacity of the BM extract was assessed by measuring the acute toxicity at 24 h, lipid peroxides (LP), and protein oxidation. In normal cells, the product statistically decreased cytotoxicity and markedly inhibited LP and protein carbonyl (PC) formation, in a dose-dependent relationship. On contrary, in tumor cells, such treatment resulted in a reversed effect, cell death, malondialdehyde, and PC contents increasing with BM dose enhancement. BM extract treatment prior to subsequent administration of Dox afforded a differential protection against Dox-negative toxic side effects in normal cells without weakening (even enhancing) Dox’s antitumor activity.