운하 연구의 프레임 확대 -해양 및 장성과의 연결-

조영헌 역사교육학회 2024 역사교육논집 Vol.85 No.-

This paper summarizes the research history of the canal(or Grand Canal) until 2023 and predicts the direction of future research. The canal mentioned in this paper covers the concept of an artificial waterway connecting the south and the north of Chinese history since the Sui Dynasty, but it mainly refers to the Grand Canal of the Ming-Qing period, which connects the Capital city, Beijing, and Hangzhou. First, the expansion of the frame of canal research is the connection between canal and the ocean. As canal research progressed, the concept of the ‘The Age of the Grand Canal’(1415-1784) emerged, and during this period, maritime policy and the logistics system of the Grand Canal came to be explained in conjunction. Recently, a civilizational perspective has also emerged that identifies the Grand Canal as a connecting line between Continental Civilization and Maritime Civilization. Second, expanding the frame of canal research is the connection between the canal and the Great Wall. Amid the progress of canal research, the Great Wall, symbolizing disconnection, has attracted new attention as it contrasts with the canal, symbolizing connection. However, the story of the defense of the north side surrounding the Great Wall was also closely linked to the logistics system of the Grand Canal. As an example, taking the Tumu Incident(1449), I analyzed how the Great Wall and the Grand Canal are linked in three dimensions. Finally, I emphasized that our work to accompany the canal's connection to the ocean and the Great Wall is to change our stereotypes about the canal. If we break the conventional wisdom that considered the end of the canal as both ends, the research boundary of the Grand Canal will also extend to the "Beyond Beijing."

『동아시아사』 교과서의 ‘은 유통과 교역망’ - 주제의 설정과 그 의미 -

조영헌 동북아역사재단 2013 東北亞歷史論叢 Vol.- No.39

In 2007, the textbook entitled Tong Asiasa (East Asian History ) was introduced for use in a newly established high school elective course in history in South Korea. The course was offered to high school students starting in the first semester of the 2012 school year, and through the establishment of the Tong Asiasa textbook, high school history programs adopted a curriculum composed of three components, “Korean History,”“East Asian History,” and “World History.” However, whether or not the textbook successfully bridged the existing gap between “Korean History”and “World History,” and whether it presents unbiased perspectives of the controversial “East Asian History” remains unclear and requires reevaluation. This study seeks to re-evaluate the contents of the “East Asian History” textbook. Of the 26 content topics, the chapter entitled “Silver Trade and Its Networks” was selected for additional analysis and evaluation. This chapter did not merely contain a list of historical events from South Korea, China, and Japan. Rather, it was more focused on the transnational production, distribution, and consumption of silver viewed from both an East Asian perspective and a global perspective. The inclusion of such a novel topic in the “East Asian History” textbook could be attributed to two principal explanations: the uncommon urgency in the introduction of the “East Asian History” textbook and the growing research interest in global history. Upon examining two textbooks, the “Silver Trade and Its Network”chapter was found to effectively portray the locality of East Asia. However, the chapter failed to adequately explain the role and the importance of Joseon in the period from the sixteenth century to the nineteenth century in the barter system for silver in East Asia. In terms of Korea as an East Asian country, this chapter should highlight the limitations and the potential associated with the silver network in Korea’s foreign trade, which had been mainly constricted by China for a long time, but which, at the same time, extended to Japan and Southeast Asia, and ultimately to the rest of the world. If the goal of “East Asian History” is to depict a balanced viewpoint between “East Asian history inside world history” and “Korean history inside East Asian history,” additional research and positivistic approaches from the Korean perspective are required on the topic of the silver trade and its networks as related to history from the sixteenth century to the nineteenth century.

1522년 北京 會同館의 對朝鮮 門禁 조치와 그 배경 - 正德帝 遺産의 정리와 관련하여 -

조영헌 한국중국학회 2020 중국학보 Vol.91 No.-

This article attempts to find out why the strick access control measure of Huitongguan(會同館) in Beijing was imposed toward Joseon envoys in 1522, from the perspective of the Ming Court(明朝). In 1522, the Ming court imposed the strict access control measure of Huitongguan toward Joseon Envoys. In response to this matter, Joseon envoys tried to lift such restrictions, and meanwhile, a heated debate about the causing factors was ongoing in Joseon court. Joseon assumed that there were two main reasons that caused such circumstances. One was a Joseon’s envoy, Kim Yiseok(金利錫), who bought a book called Unity gazetteer of the Great Ming dynasty(『大明一統志』) from Ming merchant, and the other one was a Ming’s bureaucrat, Suncun(孫存), who detected such unauthorized trade and enforced the strict access control of Huitongguan. However, even with such an explanation, the question of why Ming imposed the strict access control measure of Huitongguan toward Joseon envoys in 1522, still remains ambiguous. This paper found a clue to a rich interpretation of this problem from the changes of Ming’s domestic political situation that a sweeping crackdown and a tighten access control measure of Huitongguan was launched in 1521. In 1521, the Zhengde emperor deceased and the Jiajing emperor ascend the throne. Soon after the Jiajing emperor was enthroned, his reform drive was mainly focused on dealing with a bequest of the later years of the Zhengde emperor, which caused slackened discipline of Huitongguan. At the center of such reform, the target was Sa'id Husein(寫亦虎仙), who stayed in Huitongguan for 3~4 years and had been in and out freely while his staying. He was the chief of Huihuiren(回回人) from Hami(哈密), and got permitted to stay in Huitongguan for a long-term under the Zhengde emperor’s favor. In 1520, more than 20 delegates of Portugal envoys and their translator Yasan(亞三) was arrived in Huitongguan, which caused even more untidy management of Huitongguan. Abnormal administration that caused the slackened discipline of Huitongguan faced a totally new situation in 1521 as the Zhengde emperor passed away. As the Jiajing emperor was enthroned, Sa'id Husein and Yasan got arrested and executed. Also, the sweeping crackdown and the tighten access control measure of Huitongguan was launched. In such a context, the strick access control measure of Huitongguan(會同館) in Beijing was imposed toward Joseon envoys in 1522. In sum, the strick access control measure of Huitongguan toward Joseon envoys was the outcome of the political transition from the Zhengde emperor to the Jiajing emperor. Such restriction should be seen as a part of the Jiajing emperor’s reform drive that deals with the bequest of the later years of the Zhengde emperor. 본 논문은 1522년 朝鮮 사신에 대한 會同館의 門禁 조치가 이루어진 이유를 明朝의 입장에서 찾아보려는 시도이다. 1522년 명이 조선 사신에 대해서 회동관의 문금 조치, 즉 출입제한조치를 시행하자 조선에서는 이를 해제하려는 노력을 지속하면서 문금의 요인에 대한 갑론을박이 벌어졌다. 조선에서 파악한 문금의 요인은 크게 조선 요인설과 명 관료 요인설 두 가지로 요약이 가능하다. 1522년에 通事 金利錫이 명 상인을 통해 『大明一統志』를 구매한 것은 전자에 해당하고, 이를 적발하고 문금 조치를 단행한 禮部郎中 孫存은 후자에 해당한다. 그럼에도 불구하고 정작 왜 1522년에 문금 조치가 시행되었는지에 대해서는 모호한 부분이 남아 있었다. 본고는 그 해석의 실마리를 문금 직전, 즉 1521년부터 회동관에 대한 대대적인 단속과 사신들의 출입 통제가 강화되고 있는 명조 내부의 국면 전환에서 찾았다. 1521년은 正德帝가 사망하고 嘉靖帝가 즉위했던 해였다. 정덕제의 치세 말기에 해이해진 회동관의 기강을 바로잡기 위한 가정제 즉위 초반 개혁 드라이브는 우선적으로 이러한 문란함을 야기했던 정덕제의 유산을 정리하는 작업에 집중되었다. 그 핵심에는 회동관에 3∼4년이나 머물며 사사로이 회동관을 출입했던 사이드 후세인(寫亦虎仙)이 있었다. 그는 哈密에서 온 回回人 수령으로, 정덕제의 총애를 받아 회동관에 장기간 머물렀다. 1520년에는 포르투갈에서 온 20여 명의 사절단과 통역인 亞三까지 회동관에 합류하여 기강이 더욱 문란해졌다. 비정상적인 운영으로 말미암아 해이해진 회동관의 기강은 1521년 정덕제의 죽음과 함께 완전히 새로운 국면을 맞이하였다. 가정제의 즉위와 함께 사이드 후세인과 亞三이 체포되어 죽음을 맞이하였고, 회동관에 대한 대대적인 정비 작업과 단속 강화가 이루어졌다. 1522년 조선에 대한 회동관의 문금 조치는 이러한 상황 변화 속에서 발생했다. 요컨대, 조선 사행단에 대한 회동관 문금 조치는 가정제의 등극과 함께 정덕제의 유산을 정리하는 정치적 전환기의 한 소산물이었다.

『金甁梅』를 통해 본 明末 臨淸과 大運河 유통망

조영헌 한국중국학회 2012 중국학보 Vol.65 No.-

This paper seeks to define the geopolitical features and development process of Linqing(臨淸) of the Shandong province as an intermediary trade city along the Grand Canal in the late Ming mainly by analysis of the novel, Jinpingmei(金甁梅). In order to use the novel material which contains lively and somewhat exaggerative descriptions as the main source of analysis, I compared the contents of the novel with several materials regarding Chinese city and transportation history. After the reconstruction of the Grand Canal in 1415, Linqing became a great center for the distribution of tributary grains, textiles, and bricks and was also well known as the place where the tiles of the Forbidden City and Great Wall were produced. Linqing’s flourishing economy was based on three main causes: Linqing’s locality which lies on the edge of the Huitong(會通) canal's northernmost point,Linqing’s topography as one of the toughest ridges of the Grand Canal, and the establishment of the Linqing customs(鈔關). As a result, most boats passing through the Huitong canal of the Grand Canal were inclined to anchor and take a rest in Linqing before continuing their journey and Linqing came to be the hub of long-distance distribution networks connecting Huabei(華北) and Jiangnan(江南) areas. The expansion of personnel and material exchanges between Linqing and Jiangnan led to the promotion of exchanges such as theatrical trends, a tendency for extravagance and so on.

해상(海商) 왕직(王直)의 흥망(興亡)과 휘주(徽州) 네트워크

曺永憲,蔡暻洙 명청사학회 2015 명청사연구 Vol.0 No.44

本研究试图从‘16世纪东亚海上贸易’这个宏观角度把握和评价以明代代表性的海商及后期倭寇首领扬名的王直(?∼1559)的活动及其商业关系网。关于王直的研究因其被评价为后期倭寇集团的首领导致海贼这样的形象过度强烈, 所以作为徽州商人的特征和徽州关系网中可能的王直的活动面貌没有得到应有的关注。于是本研究将在分析王直的活动和其关系网上抛开其被认识为海贼或倭寇的现有观点, 增加①与徽州或江南等中国内地关系密切的徽州商人这一侧面及②边际人(marginal man)乃至国际商人这两个角度, 来认识王直及其时代。 1章讲述了16世纪后期倭寇登场、活动的过程中出身于徽州歙县的王直作为将浙江沿海与日本连接起来活动的海商变样的过程。此过程中与同乡海商许栋的关系作为决定性因素起了作用。1544年(嘉靖23年)在广东活动后移动到浙江双屿的王直在许栋麾下管理财政的同时成为负责日本方面窗口的中枢性的存在。即王直进行海商活动之前海上徽州人的活动基础已经准备好了。 2章分析了1548年(嘉靖27年)因朱纨攻夺双屿导致许栋集团没落后王直把大本营移到日本掌握海上霸权到1553年的过程。王直集团与许栋等已有的双屿的海商势力有两点不同。第一, 与以杭州以南的福建、浙江沿海为中心活动的双屿海商势力相比, 王直集团以杭州、苏州、松江、扬州、淮安等浙江北部到南直隶沿岸为中心进行活动。第二, 王直集团与以往势力不同全面打造了网罗官、军、士、商的当地合作势力。尤其是与官、军的蜜月关系引人注目。 3章关注了1553年以后直到1558年(嘉靖37年)王直投降于胡宗宪的时期, 连接海洋和内陆的徽州关系网扩大的局面。尽管这个阶段的王直没有直接率领船队活动, 把五岛作为据点利用徐海、陈东、叶明等扩大了势力圈。在季风的影响下不能自由的当时中日航海中五岛相当于连接两者的咽喉。而且通过当时各种商业路程书可以发现集中于杭州到淮安的直、浙沿海都市的徽商内陆交易网与徽商徐海等活动舞台的一致性。因此可以说王直集团是连接以五岛为中心的海上贸易网和以徽州为中心的内陆交易网的边际人及国际商人, 为其做后盾的有各种各样的徽州关系网才可能形成。 4章分析了王直的成长过程中发挥强大力量的徽州关系网以何种形式作为使其集团没落的力量起了作用。海商势力王直与官府的代表胡宗宪间奇妙的信赖关系以徽州这个同乡关系网为基础, 因此因王直的死去连接内陆与海洋的徽州关系网出现了危局, 之后这个关系网以去掉海洋部分的状态并集中于内陆的倾向变强了。仍然作为内陆和海洋的边际人及国际商人进行活动的势力间歇的持续着, 不过没能再与内陆的徽州关系网连接上。就这样徽商王直的兴亡同时内含了16世纪东亚海上贸易的可能性与局限, 通过其人生可以发现之后徽商的整体发展趋势得到规定的划时代性意义。

4차 산업혁명 시대를 맞이하는 교양교육의 방향 모색과 제언

조영헌 한국교양교육학회 2021 한국교양교육학회 학술대회자료집 Vol.2021 No.11

북경은 어떻게 이민족의 수도에서 한족의 수도로 정착되었나?

조영헌 서울시립대학교 서울학연구소 2019 서울학연구 Vol.- No.75

There were countless conflicts and compromises in Chinese history until Beijing established itself as the capital. Even after the Yongle Emperor relocated the capital from Nanjing to Beijing during the Ming dynasty, it took Beijing a great deal of time to establish itself as the only capital of China. There had been behind-the-scenes competition between Nanjing, chosen by the Hongwu Emperor (a founding emperor of the Ming dynasty), and Beijing, newly chosen by the Yongle Emperor, for nearly 20 years after the Hongxi Emperor decided on the “relocation to Nanjing.” In the end, Beijing was established as the capital in 1441. This paper identified this as a process by which Beijing transformed itself from “the capital of the non-Chinese ethnic group” to “the capital of the Han Chinese” and examined controversies that arose when the Han Chinese accepted Beijing, a city with Mongolian elements, as the “only” capital. By looking into the process wherein the existing image of the non-Chinese capital was overlaid with the image of the Han Chinese capital through the spatial reorganization of the capital, the present study confirmed that a diverse heterogeneity formed in Beijing. Likewise, the process extending from the relocation of Beijing to its establishment as the only capital and its resulting transformation into a multilayered urban structure can be considered to have developed in a way that symbolized the integration of the north and south. While ‘the Nanjing faction’ and ‘the Beijing faction’ engaged in behind-the-scenes competition for 20 years, the urban structure of Beijing combined and balanced elements from “the non-Chinese capital” and “the Han Chinese capital.” During the Ming dynasty, when these elements were balanced and adjusted, Beijing laid the foundation to become a city of Hua-Yi(Sino-barbarian) integration that connected the north and south. By doing so, Beijing in the Ming dynasty was able to secure the underlying conditions that connected and integrated the nomadic world and the settled world, and the Qing dynasty, which continued using Beijing as its capital, further transformed it into a multi-ethnic city. 북경이 수도로 정착되는 역사적 과정에는 수많은 갈등과 타협이 발생하였다. 특히 명대 영락제(永樂帝)가 남경에서 북경으로 수도를 천도한 이후에도, 북경이 사실상 유일한 수도로 정착되는 데에는 상당히 오랜 시간이 필요했다. 특히 홍희제(洪熙 帝)가 ‘남경(南京)으로의 환도(還都)’를 결정하고 20년 가까이 명나라의 개창자인 홍무제(洪武帝)가 선택했던 남경과 영락제가 새로 선택했던 북경 사이에 물밑 경쟁이이루어지다가, 결국 1441년 북경이 수도로 결정이 되었다. 본 논문은 이 과정을 북경이 ‘이민족의 수도’에서 ‘한족(漢族)의 수도’로 변용되는 과정으로 파악하고, 한족사회가 몽골적인 요소가 담긴 북경을 ‘유일’한 수도로 수용하는 과정에서 발생한 논쟁과 도시의 중층적인 성격을 규명하였다. 특별히 이 시기에 진행된 수도 공간의 재편을 통해 기존의 이민족 수도의 이미지가 한족의 수도로 덧입혀지는 과정을 고찰하면서, 북경에 다양한 이종성(異種性, heterogeneity)이 형성되었음을 확인할 수 있었다. 이처럼 북경 천도 이후부터 정도(定都)까지의 과정 및 그 결과 형성된 도시 구조의 중층적 변용은 남북통합의 표상을 상징하는 방향으로 전개되었다고 평가할 수있다. 20년 가까이 ‘남경파’와 ‘북경파’의 물밑 경쟁이 진행되는 상황에서, 북경의 도시구조는 ‘이민족의 수도’와 ‘한족의 수도’가 지닌 요소가 복합적으로 절충되었다. 이것이 절충되고 조정되는 명 시대를 거쳐 북경은 비로소 남과 북을 연결하는 화이(華 夷) 통합의 수도가 될 수 있는 기반이 마련되었다. 이를 통해 명 북경은 그야말로 유목세계와 정주세계를 연결하고 통합할 수 있는 기반조건을 확보할 수 있었고, 이러한 명 북경의 수도성을 그대로 계승했던 청조(淸朝)가 이를 변용하여 다민족성을 담지한 수도로 한층 더 발전시켜 나갈 수 있었다.

明ㆍ淸 交替와 揚州 鹽商

曺永憲 동양사학회 2000 동양사학회 학술대회 발표논문집 Vol.2000 No.-

‘文明起’와 ‘제3세계’ : 2000년 이후 중국 고등교육의 세계사 인식

曺永憲 歷史敎育硏究會 2009 역사교육 Vol.112 No.-

4차 산업혁명 시대를 맞이하는 교양교육의 방향 모색과 제언 : 동양사 연구&교육자의 입장에서

조영헌 포항공과대학교 융합문명연구원 2021 문명과 경계 Vol.- No.4