Winesburg, Ohio에 나타난 Sherwood Anderson의 grotesques

조권수 崇田大學校 大學院 1981 국내석사

"Life, not death, is the great adventure." So reads the inscription engraved on Sherwood Anderson's tombstone in southwestern Virginia in accordance with a request he made not long before his death at sixty-four in 1941. At first glance, the buoyancy of the epitaph seems strangely at variance with the facts of his career. For a few triumphant years after the publication of Winesburg, Ohio(1919) Anderson was acclaimed a major figure of modern literature. He was regarded with Theodore Dreiser as a Liberator of American letters from the debilitating, effects of the genteel tradition. The major theme of Anderson's writing is the tragedy of death in life: modern man, lacking personal identity and with his senses anesthetized, has, become a spiritless husk unfitted for love of man and community. This perennial theme is common enough in our time, though it was relatively dormant in the late 1910's when Anderson first enunciated it. It became his leitmotiv when, in 1912, at the age of thirty-six, he suffered a nervous breakdown and rejected hie past. Thereafter je viewed this event as a symbolic rebirth which had purified hir! of false values and freed him from the confines of deadening institutions. Winesburg, Ohio is a collection of unified stories about a group of isolated people living in a small American Midwest town at the turn of the century, which is one of the most significant transitional periods in American history. It is a short story, but each chapter does not separate and is connected story by a young news reporter, George Willard. In other words, this is a short story involving 22 stories. Anderson developed every stories which originated in a visionary small town, Winesburg, in American mid-west in 1910's. The figures of Winesburg usually personify to fantastic excess a condition of psychic deformity which is the consequence of some crucial failure in their lives, some aborted effort to extend their personalities of proffer their love. Misogyny, inarticulateness, frigidity, God-infatuation homosexuality, drunkenness -these are symptoma of their recoil from the regularities of human intercourse and sometimes of their substitute gratifucations in inanimate objects, as with the unloved Alice Hindman who "because it was her won, could not bear to have anyone touch the furniture of her own room." In their compulsive traits these figures find a kind of dulling peace but at a consequence they are subject to figid monomaniae and are deprived of one of the great blessings of human healths the capacity for a variety of experience. That is why, in a sense, "nothing happens" in Winesburg. For most of its figures it is too late for anything to happen, they can only muse over the traumas which have so harshly limited their spontaneity. Stripped of their animate wholeness and twisted into frozen them : grotesques. The conception of the grotesque, as actually developed in the stories, is not merely that it is an unwilled affliction but also that it is a mark of a once sentient striving. The grotesques are those whose humanity has been outraged and who to survive in Winesburg have had to suppress their wish to love. Wash Williams becomes a misogynist because his mother-in-law, hoping to reconcile him to his faithless wife, thrusts her into his presence naked : Wing Biddlebaum with affection is fatally misunderstood. Grotesqueness, then, is not merely the shield of deformity: it is also a remnant of misshappen feeling, what Doctor Reefy in "Paper Pills" calls "the sweetness of the twisted apples." In this way most of the characters in this short story were isolated and distorted by some tenacious desire, some eccentric inner secret in a rapid industrialized society. That is, they are all grotesque. They were the multitude who was suppressed because of their inner secret desire, and who were living lonely in an isolated society on account of that. The overall expression that his short stories and sketches show is isolation, loneliness, and defeat. These all are shown by grotesque people, and Anderson shows the process with singular depiction that the protagonist, young George Willard in Winesburg Ohio, experiences the grotesque living of a bitter life, and precedes to a mature conscious world. Anderson's use of the word "grotesque" is quite important in this context. In its usual sense in reference to human beings it connotes disgust or revulsion, but Anderson's use is quite different. To him a grotesque is, as he points out later, like the twisted apples that are left behind in the orchards because they are imperfect. These apples, secure in his knowledge that the sources or natures of their deformities are unimportant when compared to their intrinsic worth as human beings needing and deserving of understanding. This approach is based or intuition rather than objective knowledge, and it is the same sort of intuition with which one approaches the twisted apples; he believes that one dare not refect because of mere appearance, either physical or spiritual; that appearance may mask a significant experience made more intense and more worthwhile by the deformity itself. Human isolation has been one of the most common, if not the most predominant, themes of literature, especially of the novel. Since isolation has been one of the essential problems which constantly confront the human being everywhere, it ray well be that the novel should deal with the subject so often. It seems, however, that no literature has been more deeply concerned with the problem of isolation and its resulting effect upon human life than American literature. Anderson writes about ordinary people doing ordinary things, yet they are not normal or commonplace in the usual sense, because his concern in this book is not so much the physical appearance of their external world as the psychological reality hidden reality of their lives, had known and lived it. He manages in a remarkable way to capture the essence of American existence in transition during that period, exploring the ultimate problem of human isolation as the major theme. What then, is the cause of human isolation suggested in these stories? Isolation originates in a narrowness of human vision and in an inability or, in some cases, an unwillingness to attempt to understand the complexities of human life and experience. However, there is no evidence throughout the book that those inherent human shortcomings are the only cause Anderson wants to give for the condition of isolated people and that he thinks they are completely inherent as David D. Anderson insists. Rather, Anderson seems to conceive of some external social pressure of the time such as rugged materialism of the industrialized society or luritanical idea of religion and sex as the main cause of isolation and there human shortcomings. The cruel force of materialism if well symbolized in the ironic death of Doctor Parcival's brother, another isolated grotesaue, who was run over by the cac in which he lived. The car is, no doubt, a symbol of the industrial age itself. The quixotic defiance of old Windpeter, a victim of the material achievement, slashed at his team and rushed straight for the onrushing locomotive, raving and swearing at it. Another misguided idea of Puritanism is to be found in the attitude of the society of Winesburg toward sexual love. The theme of sexual repression is an undercurrent of many Winesburg stories. In "Nobody Knows," as the title implies, George Willard is ashamed of, and even afraid of, sex like other people of the town. The conventional morality of the town, with its background of rigid Puritanism, prevents him from realizing that sex is a desirable means of communication. His response to the act of love or understanding: it is only shame, fear, and guilt. Most of the characters of Winesburg, Ohio are, in a sense, rebellious individuals who, unable to find proper means to communicate, escape from society in order to find their identity as a human being rather than as a member of society. They are, more or less, innocent people who wish to express what they believe the truth of human life and to achieve desirable human relationship by communicating with others. But the social order does not allow them to realize their wishes. The society in which they live changes so rapidly with its sweeping materialism that they have to suffer the increasing conflict between the rural and urban ways of life, their chance of remaining innocent disappearing gradually. The religious belief and the conventional morality do not answer their needs; rather, they warp and stifle them. Deprived of a tradition of cultural manners, they cut themselves off from society and retreat into their dream world in which they live by their own truth. In the American society "where as yet to mature in one's fanciful life is thought of as something like a crime," their isolation inevitably points up the discrepancy between appearance and reality, the real and the ideal, public morality and private reality, which has become the major social dilemma of the time. I examined closely the motivation of the grotesques and classify their types. And then I researched how the writer combined normal human relation which these people wanted and tried to show how George Willard matured gradually. Finally I examined closely how Anderson understood and how he introduced them to the world through this work.

존 칼빈과 찰스 하지의 신학방법론과 인식론에 관한 비교 연구

조권수 亞細亞聯合神學大學校 2017 국내박사

Abstract Comparative study on the theological methodology and epistemology between John Calvin and Charles Hodge Cho, Kwon Soo Ph. D. in Historical Theology The Graduate School. Asia United Theological University This dissertation is the study on the discontinuity of theological methodology and epistemology between John Calvin and Charles Hodge. The point I am going to focus on is discontinuity between the Reformation Theology of John Calvin in the 16th century and the Reformed Orthodoxy Theology of Charles Hodge in the 19th century in regards to theological methodology and epistemology. Generally, many people misunderstand that the Reformation Theology of John Calvin and the Reformed Orthodoxy Theology of Charles Hodge is almost the same. We can say that the opinion has validity to a degree. However, in the viewpoint of theological methodology and epistemology, their teachings show unexpected decisive discontinuity. Calvin’s theology has a close continuity with St. Augustine, St. Bernard of the medieval, and the Reformer Martin Luther in Germany on the matter of epistemology and theological methodology. Calvin’s theological methodology for true biblical spiritual understanding is not a mere rational pursuit of understanding. On the contrary, it is a spiritual experience and inner conviction which are far more than human reason. Also it brings the Bible, experience, tradition, and reason together in the Holy Spirit. Calvin acknowledged human reason as a gift of God, but he had better control of it under the authority of the Bible. In Adam, the first man, all mankind has guilt and total corruption together. Because of this practical original sin, all mankind runs into the limits getting the full knowledge of God from not only the general revelation but also the special revelation. Therefore, Calvin emphasizes divine assistance through the Holy Spirit from above and by far beyond human reason on the sound understanding of Creation, Fall of Adam, and Redemption of Christ. It is a historical truth that the Bible which is God’s revelation for salvation was given to all mankind. But nobody can reach efficacious spiritual knowledge on the Bible only through human reason without the assistance of the Holy Spirit. Calvin made a conclusion that sound Reformation doctrine’s understanding was acquired only by the illumination and indwelling of the Holy Spirit in Saints. Charles Hodge had confidence like John Calvin in regards to Original sin and especially guilt that was taught in the Bible. Although his emphasis on practical corruption of original sin by nature was much poorer than Calvin, he maintained his opinion that human beings had a heavy guilt which gave them eternal death under Adam’s sin. That guilt is resulted in the burden of eternal death, which humans cannot resolve the problem for themselves. Now, God has promised Jesus Christ as a ransom for the guilt of man in the Bible, so all mankind has a duty to learn and understand the word of God and the gospel even through human reason. Hodge was certain that the understanding like the above can be efficacious understanding of God. He believed that there is no contradiction between the Bible and human reason and even scientific knowledge. Charles Hodge had confidence that the Bible and its gospel became efficacious when even human reason believed the authority of the Bible and received its doctrines as it is. But his logic and conviction were on the lines of the Arminian theological methodology type which acknowledged not only Adam’s fall but also human reason and power. Charles Hodge accepted completely Reformed scholastic theology of Francis Turretin in the 17th century. He did not accept Calvin’s Reformation theology in the 16th century on the whole like Jonathan Edwards who was his spiritual ancestor in the 18th century and accepted Calvin’s theological methodology. The main point is, as Scotland Common Sense Philosophy taught, Hodge had over-confidence on human reason and he believed that human reason can be an another instrument for true spiritual understanding along with the Holy Spirit. Above all things, the discontinuities between Calvin in the 16th century and Charles Hodge in the 19th century is manifested, first of all, on the matter of understanding total corruption and the value of human reason, and secondly, of the transcendent epistemology and theological methodology. Since Calvin believed that the change of theological methodology could change the contents and effect of biblical gospel as a result, he could not disregard not only the contents of gospel but also the theological methodology which made it possible to understand the Bible and the gospel aright. Hodge accepted most parts of Calvin’s theology including the possibility of rationalistic methodology which was demanded in his era. And he even accepted willingly a modified theological methodology for his epistemological choice. That means the Reformed Orthodoxy doctrine of theological methodology does not assert an independent work of the Holy Spirit for true biblical spiritual understanding. It accepts another methodology for truth along with human reasoning together that was taught by the Scotland Common Sense Philosophy. The one important assertion in this thesis is the Semi-Arminian type’s Orthodoxy theological methodology. It accepts Calvin’s Reformation theology contents within the framework of the Arminian methodological type. Its doctrine is manifested as the Reformed theology externally, but the type of its theological methodology is a Arminian color plainly. And the other is a natural conclusion from that methodology, humanistic evangelism which asserts that the knowledge acquired from the Bible and doctrine through human reason, assent to that knowledge, and human intelligent decisions can be acknowledged as a regenerated saving faith taught by the Bible. Calvin emphasized on and on that biblical epistemological contents and theological methodology for it are efficacious when we pursue the harmony of the Word and Spirit well. But Hodge pursued modified theological methodology which allowed human reasoning too much more than Calvin. So, the assertion that Hodge’s epistemology undermined Calvin’s essential contents has enough validity. Calvin’s Reformation doctrines and biblical gospel, which were derived from the Bible, are well understood spiritually by using his theological methodology aright focused on the work of the Holy Spirit. It is because of the practical limit on Adam’s fall and human’s total corruption that all of the teachings in the Bible itself alone are not efficacious to all mankind. I believe that it is so urgent to recover the conviction of Reformation epistemology and theological methodology in the 16th century. It means that God’s efficacious calling to acquire the spiritual knowledge of God in Christ as a saving faith through the Bible and the gospel of Christ is always using the type of biblical theological methodology concentrated on the Holy Spirit taught by Reformers like John Calvin in the 16th century invariably-even now.