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崔韶子 이화여자대학교 한국문화연구원 1980 韓國文化硏究院 論叢 Vol.36 No.-
From the 17th century, the acceptance of His-hsueh - science, technology, and Catholicism-in Korea and China has a strong effect to Pre-modern society. In China, the introduction and development had been mainly carried out by Jesuit missionaries, while in Korea the introduction, was by envoys to Peking had become interested in the studies and the development by the scholars of Sil-hak(Shih-hsueh, 實學). Jesuit missionaries who had worked in China, stirred the Chinese gentry's interest in western science and technology with a adoption methodology-so called Ricci Style, and had made an approval to Royal Court through the upper class by used those approach as a mean. Therefore, Jesuit missionaries had more interests in deeply understanding China and cultivating the Chinese study than to expand the numbers of believers. Jesuit missionaries, with those approach had translated many western books into Chinese-Catholicism, mathematics, astronomy, the Roman calender, and geography etc.-for those of the Chinese gentry, and they made Chinese gentry's participate in writing the preface, postscript and in compiling. It is doubtful that those translated books were read by many of the Chinese leading class and it probably did not influence them. This was due to the disorder period of dynastic shift and the settlement of the empiric order by Ch'ing. Considering that the purpose of a missionaries work was aimed at the christianizzation of the Chinese, there were some attempts to develop Hsi-hsueh, centering around Royal in technical point of view. However, there are some doubts to how successful they were in their activities. From the receiver's standpoint the Ch'ing court had accepted advanced western scientific culture. However. In religion there occurred Rites of Controversy(典禮問題) and it is doubtful how wide Confucian tradition could open the door to Christianity. There could be a necessary study on the influence to Chinese society, to a certain extent, which were the ruling class of Chinese by Hsi-hsueh in religious and culture side. While on the other, in Korea, Hsi-hsueh, was introduced with the Chinese translated, studied by Sil-hak scholars. They found Li Ik(李瀷) was one of the great Sil-hak scholar, he had made Hsi-hsueh a religious and culture interest. But afterwards, Shin Hau-dam(愼後聃) entirely refused Hsi-hsueh as religious and culture. Ahn Chung-Bok(安鼎福) were acknowledged the predominance of Hsi-hsueh. Most of the Sil-hak scholars who were interested in Hsi-hsueh had a background in Neo-Confucianism. Their criticism on Hsi-hsueh looked like the blooming of the Confucian criticism in Korea. One of the peculiar aspect about the Jesuit work in Korea was characterized by the criticism of Neo-Confucianism in Korea. It was natural that the scholar of Neo-Comfucianism were against Hsi-hsueh. In any case, Catholicism had been developed as the religion to be exceed culture because the Chinese books of Hsi-hsueh had led them to believe so the books protecting Catholicism, edited by Koreans, had expanded to protect Catholicism. The Korean acceptance of Hsi-hsueh and its development were introduced with Chinese acceptance of Westernism. Its spreading had been an autonomous development and its study had sublimated as a religion. Consequently, the two countries acceptances are studied more to look for the Korean's approach in the consideration of the Chinese flow of acceptance than the comparative study between that of China and Korea.
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최소자 이화여자대학교 한국문화연구원 1990 韓國文化硏究院 論叢 Vol.57 No.-
This study is to consolidate the history of the international relations of Ch 'ing(淸) prior to entering mainland China. At these time, the international relations of Ch 'ing were mostly consist of the relations of Ming(明) Mongolia(蒙古) and Chosun among them. The invasion to Korea in 1627 and, 1636 made Korea to being economically and substantially their dependency before entering to china. From the end of the 16th century, the relation between ch 'ing and chosun had some quarrels against border incidents. But since Sarhu War, (薩爾滸戰) they had known the situations of Korea and were going to invade Korea from the time that Tai-Zong(太宗) came to the throne. It is doubt that the first invasion was inevitable than the second one. Under the pretext of the removal of Mao Wen-long(毛文龍), they at first attacked Mao Wen-long and then conquested Korea. However, it is necessary to examine whether their real intention was the invasion upon Korea on the protext of the removal of Mao Wen-long or they really wanted to remove Mao Wen-long. The factors to conquest Korea at theses time were considered the shortage of food, the escape of farmers, the famine due to the rupture of the relation of Ming and Tai-zong 's war likeness Immediately on conquested Korea, they requested a cease-fire and the agreement of Jiang-hua(江華條約), which was the result of the conquest, were stipulated the relation between Korea and Ming, the problem of Mao and the exchange of prisoners of war. Therefore, judging from these main agreements, the political factors would be mostly effected than others. After the invasion of Korea, Ch 'ing invaded Monogolia and introduced Chinese bureaucratic system. They expanded their influence on either the domestic or abroad. After the period of 1630 's, the POW exchange, the recall of men who crossed the border and the request of the opening a market were problems pending between the two conturies. Anyway, owing to the problems of the first invasion the second invasion was happened in 1636. The agreement was singed on January, 1637 and they demanded their all necessarily conditions on the political, military and economical sides, which were the relation between the ruler and the ruled, the establishment of a tribute system, the rupture of a diplomatic relation between Korea and Ming, the engagement of sending troops against Ming as Ch 'ing conquesting Ming and to send Korean hostages to the capital city of Ch 'ing Then Ch 'ing made Korea and well as Mongolia their supporting powers at the rear.
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魏源(1794-1857)과 新學問 ~ 『海國圖志』편찬과 관련하여
최소자 이화여자대학교 한국문화연구원 1991 韓國文化硏究院 論叢 Vol.59 No.1
Wei Yuans "Hai-kuo Tu-chih" (The Illustrated Gazeteer of the Maritime Countries) appeared first(1842) in 50 (卷); later(1847) in 60 chuan; and finally(1852) was expanded to 100 chuan. The book is one of the materials what Chinese intellectuals adjusted themselves to the rapidly change of the domestic and international situations after the Opium War. Wei Yuan was represented one of the typical Chinese intellectuals as a progressive thinker, bureaucrat, historian and geographer in the early part of 19th century. He worked mostly in Kiangsu about the reforming of salt administrations, the irrigation and maritime works and wrote also the books of the traditional Chinese thoughts. However he was appreciated highly because he had pursued to make clear the correlation between the actuals and studies themselves, not only to tide over difficulties at that time. Wei Yuan is appraised one of the major figures in the Modern Chinese History, because he insisted in his "Hai-Kuo Tu-chih" that foreigners were expelled learning their strong points. He referred to records of Chinese history, writing of maritime countries, the world history and geography books written by westerners, world maps collected at the time and foreigners news-papers (Macao, Hong Kong and Canton) in order to write his "Hai-kuo Tu-chih". He gave emphasis on that he made references directly from the works of the westerner, not from the works written by Chinese. From the background which Wei Yuan wrote the book, the process of this acceptance of the western culture could be found as follows; He began to write his books after received Lin Tse-hsu(林則徐)s Ssu-chou-chih(四州志) directly form Lin Tse-hsu on June, 1841 who went into exile of taking liability about the defeat of the Opium War. He wrote 50 chuan of "Hai-kuo Tu-chih" on next year. And he made clear in the preface that he wrote the book on the basis of Ssu-chou-chih. But in the "Hai-kuo Tu-chih", the Encyclopaedia of Geography written by Murray was quoted rather than Ssu-chou-chih. And 24 chunas showed "Westerner works, which translated by Lin Tse-hsu and reedited by Wei Yuan"(歐羅色人原撰 林則徐譯 魏源重輯). But the chuans were not much difference comparing with others. It could be understood that from his works he referred not to Ssu-chou-chih, but to Encyclopaedia of Geography by Murray. Lin Tze-hsu gave Wei Yuan the chance to write "Hai-kuo Tu-chih", and he wrote one of the most important world geographical books t illustrate Western Areas in 19th century in reference of lots of materials (domestic and foreign) with interests of scholar and progressive thinker. Also, he did not take part in the Opium War and not contact directly to foreigners. However he wrote "Hai-kuo Tu-chih" with his excellent realistic feelings and political insights.
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中國의 傳統的 西洋觀 : 明代까지의 基本史料를 中心으로
崔韶子 이화여자대학교 한국문화연구원 1974 韓國文化硏究院 論叢 Vol.23 No.-
1. The conception of the West was discovered in the early part of the Ming Dynasty, and generally used when Cheng Ho's maritime expeditions were made. In the 16th century, the West geographically covered the area form the South West coast of China and South East Asia to the Arabian Gulf, and the 17th the century the West reign of Borneo. And from the period of Ch'ing the West was regarded as the region of Europe. 2. The list of western Nations in the Chinese Source Materials. Period | Nation ----------------------------------------|-------------------------------------------------------- From Han to Sung | Ta-Ch'in (Roman Empire) | Fu-lin (Byzantine Empire) Ming | Fo-lang-chi (Portugal) | I-ta-li-a (Italy) | Ho-lan (Holland) 3. The time, mentioned in the Chinese Materials, for bringing tributes form the West to China. Dynasty | Time ---------------------------------|----------------------------------------- 1. Han | 166 A.D. 2. Chin | 284 A.D. 3. Tang | 643, 666-701, 719 A.D. 4. Sung | 1081, 1091 A.D. 5. Ming | 1518 A.D. 4. Understanding of Western Nations. Nation | Description ----------------------------------|----------------------------------------------------------- Roman Empire | 1. Distance from China to Rome | 2. Location | 3. Geographical Features | 4. Type of sovereignty | 5. Mode of life & manners | 6. Trade & Local-made-Goods ----------------------------------|-------------------------------------------------------------- Byzantine Empire | 1. Location | 2. Type of sovereignty | 3. Local-made-goods | 4. Mode of life & manners | 5. Clothing & head-gear ----------------------------------|--------------------------------------------------------------- Portugale | 1. Location | 2. Trade to China | 3. Local-made-goods | 4. Clothing & head gear | 5. Religion | 6. Explanation of Portuguese features ----------------------------------|--------------------------------------------------------------- Holland | 1. Location | 2. Trade | 3. Religion | 4.Local-made-goods | 5. Explanation of Dutch Features ----------------------------------|---------------------------------------------------------------- Italy | 1. Location | 2. Activity of Missionaries in China | 3. Etc. 5. Rome was mentioned in the Chinese source materials before the 16th century, and Portugal, Holland and Italy after 16th century. The latter was made with interests in actual and the former was concerned with more the view of Traditional Chinese Thought, under which all nations on the globe were ruled than actual relations with them. Mention of the West in the Chinese Source Materials is, therefore lacking of the character of times and followed the materials of the West, from the ones of previous time, not expressed the characters of times.
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