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Finding Loopholes in Sanctions: Effects of Sanctions on North Korea's Refined Oil Prices
KIM, KYOOCHUL Korea Development Institute 2020 KDI Journal of Economic Policy (KDI JEP) Vol.42 No.4
The international community's sanctions against North Korea, triggered by North Korea's nuclear tests and by missile development in the country, are considered the strongest sanctions in history, banning exports of North Korea's major items and limiting imports of machinery and oil products. Accordingly, North Korea's trade volume decreased to the level of collapse after the sanctions, meaning that the sanctions against North Korea were considered to be effective. However, according to this paper, which analyzed the price fluctuations of refined petroleum products in North Korea through the methodology of an event study, the market prices of oil products were only temporarily affected by the sanctions and remained stable over the long run despite the restrictions on the volumes of refined petroleum products introduced. This can be explained by evidence that North Korea has introduced refined oil supplies that are not much different from those before the sanctions through its use of illegal transshipments even after the sanctions. With regard to strategic materials such as refined oil, the North Korean authorities are believed to be desperately avoiding sanctions by, for instance, finding loopholes in the sanctions to meet the minimum level of demand.
정규철(KyooChul Jung) 한국정보과학회 2012 한국정보과학회 학술발표논문집 Vol.39 No.1A
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Ko, Kyung-Seok,Ha, Kyoochul,Kong, In Chul MDPI 2015 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MOLECULAR SCIENCES Vol.16 No.12
<P>The potential effects of monotypic and binary metal oxide nanoparticles (NPs, ZnO, NiO, Co<SUB>3</SUB>O<SUB>4</SUB> and TiO<SUB>2</SUB>) on microbial growth were evaluated in sandy soil collected from artificial recharge sites. Microbial growth was assessed based on adenosine triphosphate (ATP) content, dehydrogenase activity (DHA), and viable cell counts (VCC). Microbial growth based on ATP content and VCC showed considerable differences depending on NP type and concentration, whereas DHA did not significantly change. In general, ZnO NPs showed the strongest effect on microbial growth in all measurements, showing an EC<SUB>50</SUB> value of 10.9 mg/L for ATP content. The ranking (EC<SUB>50</SUB>) of NPs based on their effect on microbial growth assessed by ATP content and VCC was ZnO > Co<SUB>3</SUB>O<SUB>4</SUB> > NiO > TiO<SUB>2</SUB>. Upon exposure to binary NP mixtures, synergistic and additive modes of action were observed for ATP content and VCC, respectively. The ranges of observed (P(O)) and expected (P(E)) activity were 83%–92% and 78%–82% of the control (<I>p</I>-value 0.0010) based on ATP content and 78%–95% and 72%–94% of the control (<I>p</I>-value 0.8813) based on VCC under the tested conditions, respectively. The results indicate that the effects of NP mixtures on microbial growth in the sandy soil matrix were as great, or greater, than those of single NPs. Therefore, understanding the effects of single NPs and NP mixtures is essential for proper ecological risk assessment. Additionally, these findings demonstrate that the evaluation of NP effects may be profoundly influenced by the method of microbial growth measurement.</P>