중세한국어 ‘굳다’의 용법

김한결 ( Kim Han Gyul ) 국어학회 2021 국어학 Vol.- No.98

본고는 중세한국어 ‘굳다’의 다양한 용법을 공시적으로 살피는 것을 목적으로 작성된 것이다. ‘굳다’의 용례는 대부분 언해서를 통해 확인할 수 있기 때문에 원문의 한자를 검토하는 일, 앞으로의 통시적 변화 과정을 탐구할 것을 염두에 두어 현대한국어 ‘굳다’의 용법과 비교하는 일도 겸하였다. 중세한국어 문헌에 등장하는 ‘굳다’는 ‘堅, 固’, ‘堅固, 堅牢’를 비롯하여, ‘牢, 硬, 剛, 强, 鞏, 實, 確’, ‘堅剛, 堅强, 剛强, 牢强, 牢固’ 등에서 언해된 것이 절대다수이다. 현대한국어 ‘굳다’는 선행 연구를 참조하고 필자의 견해를 더하여 다음과 같이 모두 열세 가지로 정리하였다. 동사 용법은 총 다섯 가지인데, “① (구체물이) 단단하게 되다, ② (금전 등이) 그대로 남다, ③(어떤 성질이) 몸에 배어버릇이 되다, ④(어떤 사실이나 현상이) 없어지지 않고 남아서 고정되다, ⑤(일이) 몸에 배어 익숙해지다”가 그 내용이다. 형용성동사 용법은 “⑥ (신체가) 뻣뻣해지다, ⑦(표정 등이) 딱딱해지다, ⑧(신체 등의) 특수 기능이 떨어지거나 사라지다”와 같은 세 가지, 형용사 용법은 “⑨ (구체물이) 단단하다, ⑩ (어떤 태도가) 변하지 않을 만큼 강하다, ⑪ (사람이) 재물을 아끼고 지키는 성질이 있다, ⑫ 견디는 힘이 세다, ⑬ 심리적 장벽이 높다”와 같은 다섯 가지가 그 내용이다. 중세한국어 ‘굳다’는 동사 용법 네 가지, 형용성동사 용법 한 가지, 형용사 용법 여섯 가지 등 모두 열한 가지로 파악하였는데, 현대한국어 ‘굳다’의 용법과 일치하는 것도 있고 그렇지 않은 것도 있다. 동사 용법 가운데서 위의①은 두시기에 공통되는 것이고, ③은 의미는 서로 비슷하나 꼭 같지는 않고 선택 특성도 다른 것이다. 또 ②, ④, ⑤는 확인할 수 없는 용법이었으며, 현대한국어 용법에서 드러나지 않는 “(추상물이) 굳건해지다, (사람이 어떤 경지에) 안착하다”는 중세한국어만의 특성인 것으로 파악하였다. 형용성동사 용법으로는⑧은 두 시기에 공통되는 것이지만, ⑥-⑦은 확인할 수 없었고, 현대한국어에는 없으나 중세한국어에만 있는 그런 용법 역시 확인할 수 없었다. 형용사 용법으로는⑨, ⑪, ⑫는 두 시기 공통된 용법인 것으로 파악하였으나, ⑪, ⑬은 중세 한국어에서 발견하기 어려운 용법이었다. 반면에 현대한국어에서 발견하기 어려운 “(매듭이) 느슨하거나 헐겁지 않고 단단하다, (어떤 성질이) 몸에 밴 상태이다, (삼라만상이) 항구적이다”의 세 용법은 중세한국어에서만 발견되는 것이라고 보았다. 이렇게 두 시기 ‘굳다’의 용법이 완전히 일치하지는 않는 것은 그 용법이 통시적으로 변화해 갔음을 의미하는 일인데, 그 과정을 추적하는 일은 후고로 미루었다. This thesis was written to examine various usages of ‘Gut-da’, medieval Korean, synchronically. Because examples of ‘Gut-da’ can mostly be found from translation books, it also compared it with the usages of ‘Gut-da’, modern Korean, by focusing on the examination of Chinese characters in original texts and next research of the diachronic change process. An absolute majority of ‘Gut-da’ which appears in literature of Medieval Korean was translated from 는 ‘Roe (牢), Gyeong (硬), Gang (剛), Gang (强), Gong (鞏), Sil (實), Hwak (確)’, ‘Gyeongang (堅强), Gyeongang (堅强), Ganggang (剛强), Roegang (牢强), and Roego (牢固)’ as well as ‘Gyeon (堅), Go (固)’, ‘Gyeongo (堅固)’, and ‘Gyeonroe (堅牢)’. ‘Gut-da’, modern Korean, was arranged to be 13 usages by referring to the precedent studies and adding the author's views to them as follows: The usage of verbs are total 5 and the contents are “① (Materials) harden, ② (Money) is left as it is, ③ (Something) Men settle down to something and it became a habit, ④(Facts or phenomena) do not disappear and are left and fixed, and ⑤ (Work) You settle down to work and get accustomed to it.” The usage of adjectival verbs are 3 and the contents are “⑥(Bodies) stiffen, ⑦(Faces) are stiff, and ⑧ (Special physical) functions do not work or do disappear.” The usage of adverbs are 5 and the contents are “⑨(Materials) are hard, ⑩(Attitudes) are as strong as being unchanged, ⑪(Men) have a habit of saving and keeping money, ⑫Having a high capacity to tolerate something, and ⑬ A high psychological barrier.” ‘Gut-da’, medieval Korean, was grasped to be total 11 usages of 4 verbs, an adjectival verb, and 6 adjectives and some of them accord with the usage of ‘Gut-da’, modern Korean, and some of them don't. In the usage of verbs, the above ① has something in common in the two periods, for ③, they have similar meanings, but they are not identical and the selective characteristics were different. And ②, ④, and ⑤could not be found from them. “(Abstract things) stay grounded and (Men) reach a stage safely” which don't reveal in the usage of modern Korean have found to be the unique characteristics of medieval Korean. For the usage of the adjectival verb, ⑧ had something in common in the two periods, but ⑥and ⑦could not be found from it and the usage only found from medial Korean, not modern Korean also could not be found. For the usage of adjectives, ⑨, ⑩, and ⑬ had something in common in the two periods, but ⑪ and ⑫ were difficult to be found from medieval Korean. On the other hand, the three usages of “(Knots) are tight, not loose and (Something) Men settle down to something and it became a habit, and (Abstract things) are permanent.” which are difficult to be found from modern Korean are thought to be just found from medieval Korean. The usage of ‘Gut-da’ which do not accord with each other in the two periods mean that they have diachronically changed. The pursuit of the process was left for next studies.

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Chitinase 3-Like 1 Contributes to Food Allergy via M2 Macrophage Polarization

Eun Gyul Kim,김미나,홍정연,Jae Woo Lee,Soo Yeon Kim,김경원,이춘근,Jack A Elias,송태원,손명현 대한천식알레르기학회 2020 Allergy, Asthma & Immunology Research Vol.12 No.6

Purpose: Food allergy is a hypersensitive immune response to specific food proteins. Chitinase 3-like 1 (CHI3L1, also known as YKL-40 in humans or BRP-39 in mice) is associated with various chronic diseases, such as cancer, rheumatoid arthritis, and allergic disease. CHI3L1 is involved in allergen sensitization and type 2 helper T (Th2) inflammation, but the role of CHI3L1 in food allergy remains unclear. In this study, we sought to investigate the role of CHI3L1 in the development of food allergy. Methods: We measured serum levels of CHI3L1 in food allergic patients. Food allergy was induced in wild-type (WT) and CHI3L1 null mutant (CHI3L1−/−) BALB/c mice with ovalbumin (OVA). We investigated Th2 immune responses, M2 macrophage polarization, and mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK)/phosphoinositide 3-kinase (PI3K) signaling pathways, and also performed transcriptome analysis. Results: Serum levels of CHI3L1 were significantly higher in children with food allergy compared with those in healthy controls. Furthermore, CHI3L1 expression levels were elevated in WT mice after OVA treatment. Food allergy symptoms, immunoglobulin E levels, Th2 cytokine production, and histological injury were attenuated in food allergy-induced CHI3L1−/− mice compared with those in food allergy-induced WT mice. CHI3L1 expression was increased in OVA-treated WT intestinal macrophages and caused M2 macrophage polarization. Furthermore, CHI3L1 was involved in the extracellular signal-regulated kinases (ERK) and AKT signaling pathways and was associated with immune response and lipid metabolism as determined through transcriptome analysis. Conclusions: CHI3L1 plays a pivotal role in Th2 inflammation and M2 macrophage polarization through MAPK/ERK and PI3K/AKT phosphorylation in food allergy.

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The sex steroid hormone estradiol-17β(E2) mediate their biological effects on development, differentiation and maintenance of reproductive tract and other target tissue through gene regulation by nuclear steroid receptors. Although the importance of E2 in many physiological process has been reported, but little is known about the effects of E2 on primary cultured chicken hepatocyte. therefore, in the present study, we have examined the effect of E2 on cell proliferation and it`s related signal cascades. E2 increase [3H]-thymidine incorporation in time-(≤8hr) and dose-(10-10M)dependent manner and treatment of E2 increased the phos-phorylation of p44/43 MAPKs(p44/42 mitogen-activated protein kinase) and JNK(c-Jun N-terminal kinase) in a time dependent manner. In addition, PD98059(p44/42 blocker, 10-5 M), SP600125(JNK blocker, 10-6M) blocked the estrogen-induced increase in [3H]-thymidine incorporation. In conclusion, E2 stimulates the proliferation of primary cultured chicken hepatocytes and this action is mediated by p44/42 MAPKs and JNK signal transduction pathway.