梁啓超의 ‘新史學’과 近代國家論

허증(Heo Jeung) 부산경남사학회 2005 역사와 경계 Vol.54 No.-

The purpose of this article is to examine the character of Liang Ch'i-ch'ao' view on the modern nation by analyzing the relation of the his historical epistemology with the political thought mutually and structurally. In order to achieve this aims, first of all I have Inquired the main cause of forming ‘new historical treatise' (‘新史學’) of his new historical epistemology. In relation to the modern nation building on the ground of his new historical essay, I have investigated the character and function of ‘the modern view of people' (‘新民') which he had regarded as a cause of nation building. And I have surveyed ‘the theory of the organic nation’(國家有機體說), the theoretical basis of the formation of the state, in relation with historical Darwinism.<br/> In connected with Liang' historical essay, it has been proved that his study of historical essay has been the means to inspire political reforming thought. His intention of new historical treatise through his study of historical essay was in order to establish the constitutional people's right and national sovereignty by means of the China' political reform (constitutional government). His theory of the ‘new historical treatise'(‘新史學’) was built up centering around historical Darwinism on the basis of Chinese tradition and nationalistic Ideology reflecting the Western Imperialism.<br/> His political purpose intending ‘new historical treatise' (‘新史學’)which was composed on the basis of the progressive historical view of the nationalism was to overcome the immediate national crisis by renovating China. The alternative way of the relief of national ruin was to establish constitutional government based on the representative parliamentary system. The constituent to be capable of defend this constitutional government was just the modern people(‘新民’) which was endowed with temperament and capacity to be capable of possessing people' right. The meaning of the modern people(新民) was to be based on Socal Darwinism of the theoretic foundation for realizing national salvation.<br/> Although the nation form the modern view of the people who has the right of constitutional government, Liang had suggested that if there is no state for them, everything intended for the people would be a useless and obstructive thing. Therefore, L'iang had presented nationalistic thought which emphasizing of being the national sovereignty prior to be constitutional government or people's right. While he stressed on preceding of the nation being prior to assuring of the modern view of the people' right, he had accepted Blunstchli' the organic view of the nation and Bornhak' nationalistic thought theory. The theory of Blunstchli's nationalistic organic thought is succeeded to L'iang and became the ideological basis for the formation of the modern constitutional government thought as an alternative of the creation of constitutional modern state for rebuilding of China which was declining to be a semicolony.

진독수의 신교육론

허증 ( Heo Jeung ) 중국사학회 2003 中國史硏究 Vol.26 No.-

本文分析陳獨秀的新敎育論. 陳獨秀重視敎育的作用. 幷希望通過改進敎育以達到改造社會的目的. 陳獨秀提出了科學的敎育觀. 他主張要推進精神文明建設. 必要有科學的私有方式. 在他看來, 是否尊重科學, 富有科學精神, 關係到國民的優劣智愚, 民族的强弱興衰. 他大聲疾呼在中國, 要造成科學的風尙, 有四件事最要緊 : 一是在出版界鼓吹科學思想, 二是在普通學校里强追矯正重文史經學思想, 輕理科的習慣 : 三是最在高級學校里說立較高深的硏究科學的機關 : 四是說立販賣扱普通的科學藥品及工具, 使人人得有硏究科學的機會. 陳獨秀認爲, 新舊敎育的區別, 不在??是否開了學堂, 也不在使用了什痲敎材. 主要的標準, 應在指導思想及相關的敎育方法上. 他總結說, 舊敎育上的缺點歸結起來, “一種是犯主觀主義, 一種是犯形式主義. 這兩種主義, 是??連一起. 因爲是主觀的, 所以有了形式的. 因爲有形式的, 所以有主觀的. 這種弊病, 在歐美各國亦不得免, 在我國不但中等以上的學校. 是這樣, 就是小學敎育, 也都是這樣兩種主義. ”他把新敎育不同於舊敎育的`新`歸納爲三點 : 1) 敎育要趨重社會: 2) 要注重啓發的敎育: 3) 要講究實在應用. 陳獨秀取法西洋的敎育方針包括以下幾個內容 : “現實主義”, “惟民主義”, “職業主義”, “獸性主義”. 陳獨秀强調社會環境對人們的決定性影響, 他認爲社會差不多是個人的摸型, 個人在社會里, 方圓大小都隨着摸型變成一個胸中無主意的人. 陳獨秀提倡發展平民敎育. 不斷提高中國人民的科學文化素質. 反對小數人??斷受敎育的權利, 反對敎育界的關門主義. 他要求“學校傾向平民主義”. “人人應該受敎育”. 在“中國敎育取法西羊”方面, 陳獨秀把??提到文化層次來考慮, 比他的前人更進一步. 陳獨秀的新敎育方針是他激進民主主義的一個重要成分. 他在北大文科的實踐中取得了相當成績. 陳獨秀從文化高度思考中國敎育要取法西洋幷提出了自己的說想, 不管其思想的成熟程度如何. 應是留給人的一芼可貴思想遺産, 後人可以從中獲取進一步思索的出發點. 民國建初, 1912年的敎育方針提倡自由, 平等, 親愛(博愛), 這是淸末敎育宗旨的否定. 1915年 1月 袁世凱的敎育要旨則是淸末敎育宗旨的復??, 對1912年方針的否定. 陳獨秀的新敎育方針的意義, 在是對袁世凱敎育方針的否定, 對1912年方針的肯定和發展.

진독수의 (陳獨秀) 민주국가관

허증(Heo Jeung) 대구사학회 1996 대구사학 Vol.52 No.1

N/A

진독수의 자본주의 경제사상

허증 ( Heo Jeung ) 대구사학회 2003 대구사학 Vol.72 No.-

本文分析陳獨秀的資本主義經濟思想, 陳獨秀只是一個經濟思想家在當時的歷史條件下, 提示救濟中國經濟的辨法. 陳獨秀始終把中國經濟的發展條件放到國際經濟的大環境中去考察, 但同時又强調吸收資本主義的合理成分. 陳獨秀認爲在經濟落後的舊中國, 資本主義經濟毫無疑問地屬於進步的經濟成分. 陳獨秀把資本主義放在歷史發展的進程中來考察, 認爲資本主義是人類社會發展必經的段階. 他說 除了古代社會我們所指導的逐漸進步的經濟制度主要的只有三個 : 封建的, 資本主義的和社會主義的, 資本主義經濟代替了封建經濟制, 人類社會生産力乃得到進一步的發展, 社會主義以國家計劃的 生産代替私人自由競爭, 使社會的生産力更進一步的發展, 至於生産集中和技術增高, 社會主義的這些要求, 和資本主義是相同的. 陳獨秀從經濟發展的規律上考察問題, 認爲資本主義經濟, 作爲一個經濟發展的段階, 是不可以逾越的, 認爲中國社會經濟超越不了資本主義發展的段階, 沒有資本主義經濟發展的段階也就難以有成熟的社會主義制度的經濟前提, 령外, 他在嚴密分析的基礎上所持有的資本主義的態度也値得我們借鑒. 陳獨秀力說必須毅然決然地資本主義制發展工業, 只有工業發展, 才能구消除舊社會主義的落後性, 才能開闢新司誨的道路. 他又認爲資本主義經濟的特質是`財産私有, 自由競爭和生産集中`, 這本是打破束縛和補救前資本主義時代的落後性, 自然發展的結果 陳獨秀認爲在資本主義經濟發展的基礎上才能生産民族競爭意識. 才有民族的覺醒. 他設, 以至抗戰一年來, 爲抗戰而盡力犧牲的, 只是一部分有民族意識的 工業家, 工人, 軍人, 和愛過資本主義或社會主義洗禮的靑年. 他希望近代資本主義的生産制, 武器, 道德和文化走進中國, 大力發展生産力, 以激發民族競爭意識, 卽 `民族野心`, 他認爲如課缺如資本主義生産力, 所謂 `全民抗爭`, 不過是一宣傳口號, 因爲工業不發展而民族野心不高昻. 他因爲中國近代史上歷次革命運動, 愛國運動, 的與起都與中國資本主義工業有初步的生長, 民族野心已開始萌芽分不開, 然而正因爲經濟長久停滯在前資本主義的緣故. 他認爲日本帝國主義者企圖以工業的日本通治農業的中國, 只有用戰爭來打破中國建立資本主義新國歌之野心, 於是自做主人, 也只有努力抗戰以打破敵人的企圖. 他强調 `戰爭與革命都是生産力發展的後課`, 認爲他是顚覆不破的眞理. 在以上, 陳獨秀正確地揭示出中日戰爭的因素. 陳獨秀以上言論的可貴之處在於他認識到, `民族野心`, `競爭意識`, `全民抗爭`, 與生産力發展水平, 與物質文明的狀況息息相關. 陳獨秀認識到物質文明的對於民族的文化態度和 習性-`國民性`具有決定作用.

논문 : 진독수의 과학사상

허증 ( Jeung Heo ) 대구사학회 2013 대구사학 Vol.111 No.-

A Study on the Scientific Thought of Ch`en Tu-hsiu Heo, Jeung [Abstract] This study is to clarify the substance of Ch`en Tu-hsiu`s scientific thought. The study focuses on Ch`en Tu-hsiu`s ideological conversion with his basic recognition and partially examines the nature of Chinese Scientism. In his days, not simple changes on social system but fundamental conversion of perception was required to break an old customs and construct a new society. He discovered the basis of the perception on scientific thought. For him, science was `power of thought` and a means to revolutionize the era and the society as the motivity for an ideological conversion. First, he suggested scientific world view for the basis of ideological perception. He urged Chinese who were imbued with old customs and ignorance at that time to convert their awareness and perception through scientific reason. Furthermore, he asserted destruction of organic view of nature, personified nature, the relativistic theory of Yin and Yang(陰陽說), adults in idolization (聖敎, 聖言), religious superstition etc. not to disturb the development of Natural Science. Second, he sought a way to social reforms reflecting the social function of science by expanding natural sciences to social sciences. He insisted human liberation based on human rights theory, stressed out the progress of mankind through social Darwinism, demanded the conversion of the scientific empirical era by accepting Comte`s the History Development theory and the maximization of the utility of things by imposing utilitarianism. Third, he proposed scientific socialism as a feasible alternative associating the concept of social science with practical logic. After reviewing five types of socialism, he ruled out anarchism without a means of revolution - national authority - for the priority, and also regarded Syndicalism and Guild-socialism based on the anarchism as immature socialism forms. Fourth, he compared national socialism(social democracy) and communism for viable socialism types. From his perspective, communism was preferred to national socialism. Because he thought that the former was based on the alliance between labor and management, parliament politics, democratic politics, nationalism etc., whereas, the latter was founded on class struggle, direct action, proletarian dictatorship and the international movement, and it was more corresponding to「Doctrine」of Marxism. He also considered that under scientific cognition, historical perception of scientific socialism enabled the establishment of socialist economic system in the country which formed the national superstructure on the basis of the material conditions. In the May Fourth era, beginning with human thought liberation and human modernization, he made a comparison with eastern, western scientific perspectives, and his scientific thought finally presented modern scientific view point significantly taking account of independent reason and formal logic. By these, he converted Chinese scientific point of view from ancient one to modern one. His new scientific idea encouraged to develop and change the Chinese modern scientific thought, and brought about results progressing and reinforcing the trend of Chinese scientism during the period.

정문강(丁文江)의 과학사상(科學思想)과 중국(中國) 근대과학업(近代科學事業)의 실천(實踐)

허증 ( Heo Jeung ) 중국사학회 2018 中國史硏究 Vol.113 No.-

The purpose of this study is to analyze the scientific thoughts and achievement of Ting Wen-Chiang regarding his scientific epistemology and practices during science modernization project, who claimed the universal application of scientific methods as the leading role of scientific wave in the Science versus Metaphysics in the 1920s’ China. In the 1910s and 1930s, Ting Wen-Chiang tried to solve these time-related problems ahead of time through spreading of scientific thought and practicing science business. During this period, he played an important role in the process of Chinese modernization of science by taking practical efforts as a practical scientist and academic administrator. He argued for the universality of scientific knowledge with the theoretical basis of scientific perception as the 'Skeptical idealism' as a leader of the Chinese scientific profession. He emphasized that people must acquire 'evidence' to clearly understand the object of 'suspicion', and to do so, expand the horizon of empirical science in order to face reality. In addition, by expanding learning knowledge based on accurate concepts and rational reasoning, he stressed minimizing 'psychological ambiguity', such as metaphor and speculation caused by the psychological phenomenon of 'idealism'. In this way, he insisted common sense and rational judgment possible, and emphasized that scientific knowledge was at the basis of such judgments. Likewise, his thought of 'skeptical idealism' was the theoretical basis of practical science and provided the spiritual power of Chinese science modernization project. The existing 'scientism' evaluation of his scientific thoughts can be confirmed as a result of misreading his universal application of scientific method as 'scientific versatility'. The limit of this precedent study was caused by confusing Ting Wen-Chiang 's scientific thought with the 'scientific socialism' of excessive ideological tendency, considering Ting Wen-Chiang 's scientific thought as 'scientism'. In addition, criticizing it as scientism in the view of humanistic anti-scientificism is clearly the limit of the study view that lacks the specific age recognition of China at that time. In other words, it was the result of 'type criticism' that was introduced by the West who did not face the reality of China at that time. His role as a practical scientist in the process of Chinese modernization of science can be confirmed through his concrete business activities, which he showed in "Geology" and "National Center for Scientific Research" under the banner of "National Science and Technology". He first reorganized the nominal geology department of Beijing University into a modern geology department and established a geological research institute to train specialists for on-site geological survey. Furthermore he made efforts to improve the operation by drafting various "outline", "clause" and "advertisement" required for the institute. He also has brought the capacity of the Institute of Geology to the international level through the reorganization and establishment of the institutes, efficient arrangement of the organization personnel, issuance of domestic scholarly publications, international academic exchanges and library construction. In this way, he not only established the foundations of geological education, research and investigation, but also actively participated in geological exploration work on the site. Through this, the national distribution of mineral resources was grasped and the exact amount of reserves was measured, laying the foundation of Chinese science modernization project. On the other hand, he innovated the aspect of modern national academic research institute by renovating the organization and operation as the secretary of "National Central Research Institute". He has improved the efficiency of his work by efficiently managing the organization, personnel, and finances of the Institute. Besides, he has made it equipped with an autonomous operating system by blocking external power intervention and internal authoritarian domination. Moreover, through the establishment of 'National Academic Council', he has implemented a permanent 'consultation decision' system in the institute, thereby improving the organic relation of national academic research organizations and formulating the method of democratic operation of the institute. Ting Wen-Chiang expanded his scientific thought from the academic field to the practice field of the national society by recognizing the time mission to realize the application of scientific thought with the dream of 'Scientific Salvation'. He led the establishment and development of modern geological science base in China, institutional innovation of academic research institutes, and endeavored to develop the social economy ever since lagging behind and backward science and technology. Ting Wen-Chiang does not regard science as an empty idea, but always associates it with a real situation. In particular, he emphasized observing, measuring and experimenting various natural environments using scientific methods, which are the daily tasks of the Institute. It was because the various statistical data from here was a valuable foundation for the development of the technology industry. On the other hand, he proposed national research into the development of natural resources and innovation of production technologies using scientific methods. In addition, Ting Wen-Chiang founded science organization and science association so as to foster scientific and technological talents as well as conducted field research for the past several years. Thus it is apparent to see his spirit while devoting in science projects with his these endeavors in order to save the country as a pragmatic scientist. In this sense, it seems that the specific scientific projects that Jungmun Kang conducted during the process of science modernization were effective. Then, how should the status of the scientific wave led by Jungmun Kang be established in relation to the identification of the contemporary Chinese Scientism? Considering the era when 'Saving the Nation' was overwhelmed by 'Enlightenment' at that time due to the antipathy of the pendants sticking to tradition and the ideological criticism from the historical materialist(scientific socialism), the position of the wave (scientific pragmatism) needs to be restored. Since then, the fundamental transformation of the national system (the formation of a socialism system) has been made possible by the more powerful ideological forces (the historical materialism). If so, is rational criticism(school of science) that pursuing progressive improvement a defeated of history? Since then, the excessive ideology for 'saving the nation' has resulted in a rigid national system (the Cultural Revolution) and this has led to the weakening of the national competitiveness. In this aspect, the role of rational criticism which has pursued the 'pragmatism', excluding both extremists, is enough worth to be reappraised despite its limitations.