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Review of Tax Exemption in the Koryŏ Dynasty
오치훈 고려대학교 한국사연구소 2022 International Journal of Korean History Vol.27 No.2
This study examines the tax reductions that occurred during the Koryŏ Dynasty. First, while reviewing the historical sources for tax reduction and exemption, the terms kyŏn (蠲), kam (減), myŏn (免), pang (放), and kyŏnmyŏn (蠲免) accounted for 90% of instances of tax reductions and implied “to exempt” and not “to relieve.” Second, the reporting procedure for tax exemption or reduction was from the village administration to the local officials, Hobu (戶部; Board of Taxation), and Samsa (三司; Finance Commission). An investigation of the situation warranting tax exemption was made through Samsa, Anch’alsa (按察使; circuit commissioner), and specially assigned personnel. During the later period of the dynasty, Top’yŏngŭisasa (都評議使司; Supreme Council of State) appeared in these procedures, and there were many cases where the king gave direct orders. Third, the number of tax exemptions increased once in the first and second halves of the dynasty due to external factors such as wars, as well as natural disasters like floods and droughts.
이규보를 통해 본 고려 관인의 경제생활 -선물 수수를 중심으로-
오치훈 한국중세사학회 2019 한국중세사연구 Vol.0 No.59
We looked at the economic life of an official in the Goryeo Dynasty through the examples of gifts recorded in the book “Donggukyisanggukjip(東國李相國集)” by Lee Gyu-Bo(李奎報: 1168-1241). The gifts he received are confirmed 53 cases in about 50 years from 1193 to his death in 1241. Broken down by a certain time frame, there were 14 cases during the 17 years before taking office(1190-1207), 13 cases during the 30 years since taking office(1207-1237), and 26 cases during the four years since retirement(1237-1241). Time and frequency of gifts indicate that gifts have been concentrated since retirement. As gifts, there were various items such as alcohol and fruits, rice, fisheries products, meat, vegetables, ice, medicine, heating supplies and clothing, and in terms of the ratio, food items consumed on a daily basis account for 72 percent. Among the groceries, fruits and alcohol were the most abundant, especially alcohol, which Lee Gyu-Bo liked very much. Lee received gifts mainly from officials and monks, who often had only temporary exchanges, but also maintained a special relationship with each other. Gifts at the time are made public and customary, making it difficult to distinguish them from favors or bribes. In severe cases, the demand for gifts can also be seen, which is different from today's exchange of gifts. Meanwhile, Lee was able to exchange gifts on Ganghwa(江華島) because logistics transportation was possible due to the development of the distribution economy. Various items were being transported from the provinces to Ganghwado Island, which served as an aid to the economic life of government officials such as Lee Gyu-Bo.
유화형 액막법에 의한 Zn 성분의 추출시 액막의 안정성
오치훈,황재석,심재우,이철태 ( Chi Hoon Oh,Jai Suk Hwang,Jae Woo Shim,Chul Tae Lee ) 한국공업화학회 1997 공업화학 Vol.8 No.4
유화형 액막을 이용하여 D₂EHPA-Kerosene-Span 80-H₂SO₄ 계에서 Zn성분의 추출시 액막의 안정성에 영향을 미치는 에멀젼의 파괴, swelling 현상 및 에멀젼의 morphology를 조사하였다. Zn 성분의 추출시 액막의 안정성에 대한 최적 조건은 계면활성제 Span 80의 농도 2∼3vol.%, 추출담체 D₂EHPA의 농도 5∼7vol.%, 막강화제 paraffin oil의 농도 10 vol.% 였으며, 외부수용액에 대한 에먼젼의 비 0.1, 유기상에 대한 내부수용액의 비는 1.0이 적절하였다. The stability of liquid membrane in the extraction process was investigated through the extraction of the Zn component by using W/O/W emulsion type liquid surfactant membrane which was D₂EHPA-Kerosene-Span 80-H₂SO₄ system. The highest stability for liquid membrane through the Zn extraction process was obtained under the following conditions. That conditions were that span 80 concentration, as surfactant, of 2∼3 vol. % ; D₂EHPA concentration, as extractant, of 5∼7 vol. % ; paraffin oil concentration, as membrane strengthening agent, of 10 vol. % ; emulsion volume ratio to the external aqueous phase volume of 0.1, and internal aqueous phase volume ratio to the organic phase volume of 1.0.
고려시대 山林政策에 대한 기초적 검토- 산림정책의 推移를 중심으로 -
오치훈 한국사학회 2019 史學硏究 Vol.0 No.133
In the premodern society, all the living necessities such as wood and other forest products for heating, cooking, and building materials were obtained from forests. The country was interested in the use of these forest resources. In the Goryeo period, a forest policy based on the idea of Feng Shui and the Confucian nature was carried out. This was a protection aspect for the utilization of forest resources, but it was ideal rather than legal aspect. Goryeo’s forest policy continued in a similar way, following the implementation of the Monthly Ordinance(月令) by Confucian political ideology of King Sungjong(成宗) and the ban on the protection of King Hyeonjong(顯宗). Since the 12th century, the scarcity of forest resources has been increasing due to the expansion of agricultural lands, and measures have been taken to plant trees and ban forests. However, since the military regime(武臣政權), forest degradation and monopolization of forest use have increased. The reason for this is that military rulers(武臣執政) has begun to increase the amount of construction projects and the forest usage has increased rapidly before and after the war with Mongolia and the relocation of the capital. Under the Mongolian rule, a large amount of forest resources were used for the two times conquests of Japan, and the plundering of wood by Mongolia was severe. The monopoly of forests became more serious in the late Goryeo period. The monopoly was prohibited and punished, but it was not a fundamental measure. In this situation, Jeonsigwa(田柴科) which supplied siji(柴地), collapsed and the supply of forest resources through the receipt of Gongbu(貢賦; tribute and taxation) and So(所) was not smooth. In the end, Goryeo’s forest policy did not prevent the monopoly of forests, and this situation forced a new dynasty to be established and resolved. 전근대사회에서 난방, 취사, 건축 자재에 소요되는 목재와 기타 임산물 등 생활필수품은 모두 산림에서 구하였으며, 이러한 산림 자원의 이용에 국가가 관심을 기울이고 있었다. 고려시대에는 풍수지리 관념과 유교적 자연관에 바탕을 둔 산림정책이 실시되었으며, 이는 산림자원의 활용을 위한 보호의 측면도 있으나 법률적이기 보다는 관념적인 면이 작용한 것이었다. 고려의 산림정책은 성종대 유교정치이념에 의한 「月令」의 준수, 현종대 산림보호에 관한 禁令의 실시 이후 대개 유사한 방식으로 지속되었다. 12세기 이후 개간의 확대 등으로 산림 자원의 희소성이 보다 높아지는 가운데 식재와 송충이 피해 방지, 산림의 사점 금지 등 조처가 내려졌다. 그러나 무신정권 이후 산림의 훼손과 산림 이용의 독점 현상이 증가하였다. 무신집정에 의해 무분별한 영선 사업이 늘어났고 몽골과의 전쟁과 강화 천도를 전후로 산림 이용이 급증하였기 때문이다. 元의 지배아래서 두 차례 이루어진 일본 원정에 막대한 산림자원이 소요되었으며 元에 의한 목재의 수탈도 심하였다. 고려후기 산림의 私占 현상은 더욱 심각해졌다. 사점을 금지하고 처벌하였으나 근본적인 대책이 되지 못하였다. 이러한 상황에서 시지를 공급하던 전시과도 붕괴되었으며 貢賦의 수취와 所를 통한 산림자원의 공급도 원활하지 못하였다. 결국 고려의 산림정책은 산림의 사점을 막지 못하였고, 이는 새 왕조가 들어서면서 해결할 수밖에 없는 상황으로 전개되었다.