LAND REFORM IN KOREA, 1950

Yong-Ha Shin(愼鏞夏) 서울대학교 사회발전연구소 1976 Journal of Asian Sociology Vol.5 No.-

고조선문명권 형성의 기본구조

신용하(Shin, Yong-Ha) 고조선단군학회 2010 고조선단군학 Vol.23 No.-

In the history of the World a lost civilization in East Asia, named ‘Go Joseon Civilization’ existed between 30BCE and 3 BCE. In the Go Joseon Civilization a common Go Joseon language prevailed, and after the disintegration of the Go Joseon state, the population dispersed and migrated to different areas and became the ancestral language of the Ural-Altai Language family. Dangun (Dangul) served as common religious belief of the Go Joseon Civilization, and the Go Joseon state was also uniformly founded on the bronze and iron culture with its unique design. The constituent population was horse-riding race. The Go Joseon Civilization also boasted a unique folk culture and festival culture. Various racial groups who called their ruler “Khan” or “Han” were either the constituent population of the Go Joseon civilization or their descendants.

신민회의 창건과 그 국권회복운동 (上)

신용하 ( Yong Ha Shin ) 일지사 1977 韓國學報 Vol.3 No.3

고조선 국가의 영역 확대와 고조선 청동기의 분포

신용하 ( Yong-ha Shin ) 한국사회사학회 2014 사회와 역사 Vol.0 No.101

사회학적 실증주의 방법과 사회사적 해석을 도입하면, 문헌이 극도로 부족한 고조선에 대해서도 많은 난제를 해결할 수 있다. 고조선 국가의 영역은 당시 기록이 없기 때문에 고문헌만으로는 밝힐 수 없다. 그러나 사회학적 실증주의는 당시의유적·유물을 가장 중시하기 때문에 당시 고조선 사람들이 거주하다 묻힌 당시무덤들과 당시 부장품들 가운데서 고조선의 생활용구임이 극히 명료한 당시 출토물의 분포도를 그려서 개략적 영역을 밝히고 지도에도 개략적 영역을 그릴 수 있다. 그러한 대표적인 고조선 당시 유물이 ① 다뉴조문경 및 다뉴세문경 ② 비파형청동단검 ③ 부채꼴 청동도끼이다. 이 세가지 고조선 당시 청동기의 출토 지역을 다른 영역설정 요인을 참고하면서 연결하면, 고조선의 영역은 ① 남쪽으로는 후국인 진국(辰國)을 포함하여 한반도전역과 ② 동으로는 지금의 연해주까지 ③ 북으로는 일차적으로 송화강과 눈강하류까지, 이차적으로 고조선 후국 부여(夫餘)의 융성기에는 아무르강(흑룡강)까지, ④ 서쪽으로는 난하를 건너 후국인 고죽국(孤竹國)의 서부국경인 조백하(潮白河)까지 융성기에 영역을 확대했음을 알 수 있다. Gojoseon-style multi-knobbed bronze mirror with course lines, mandolin-shaped bronze dagger and fan-shaped axe is sharply different from the ones from ancient China. This uniqueness of Gojoseon bronze artifacts leads us sociologically to surmise that the sites of the discovery of Gojoseon bronze artifacts are coterminous with the territory of Gojoseon’s territory in its most flourishing phase which include the land of its vassal states. Gojoseon-style multi-knobbed bronze mirror with course lines, mandolin-shaped bronze dagger and fan-shaped axes have been discovered from all over the Korean peninsula which irrefutably testifies to the fact that the entire Korean peninsula was the territory of Gojoseon and its vassal states. Gojoseon-style multi-knobbed bronze mirror with course lines, mandolin-shaped bronze dagger and fan-shaped axes have been discovered in Manchuria the lower basin of the Sungari(songhwa) and Nenjiang(嫩江) rivers, while the area lying north of this region has yielded Buyeo-style clay artifacts. It is apparent that the lower reach of the Sungari and Nen rivers represent the primary territory of Gojoseon and if we include the secondary territory, i.e. the land of its vassal states such as Buyeo, the realm of Gojoseon expands to Amur river. The Eastern territory of Gojoseon included the present-day Russian Maritime area in the Far east, as several sites in this region have yielded several Gojoseon style bronze artifacts, including multi-knobbed bronze mirror with course lines. Chaobai river appeared to sever as the Western border of Gojoseon, since the historical records note that when Duke Huan of Qi, a powerful Chinese hegemon attacked Gojoseon, the entire Chaobai River basin served as Gojoseon’s warfront for the resistance of the chinese army. Discovery of Gojoseon-style bronze artifacts in the Chaobai river valley across the Luan River further strengthen our argument. The distribution of Gojoseon bronze artifacts sheds lights on the vast territorial expanse of Gojoseon during its most flourishing phase which included the entire Korean penninsula, stretched to the Amur River basin in the north, reached the maritime territory in the East and extended to the Chaobai river in the West.

신채호의 (申采浩) 애국계몽사상 (上)

신용하 ( Yong Ha Shin ) 일지사 1980 韓國學報 Vol.6 No.2

고조선 국가의 형성

신용하 ( Yong-ha Shin ) 한국사회사학회 2008 사회와 역사 Vol.0 No.80

한국의 최초의 고대국가는 古朝鮮이다. 종래 고조선은 예맥부족이 세웠다는 1부족설과 예와 맥이 세웠다는 2부족설이 제시되었었다. 필자는 3부족 개국설을 제시 하였다. 고조선은 B.C. 30세기~B.C. 24세기에, 한(Han)부족, 맥(Maek)부족, 그리고 예(Ye)부족 등 3부족(tribes)이 연맹하여 건국한 고대국가였으며, 동아시아 최초의 고대국가였다. 고조선 건국의 주요 부족인 한부족은 원래 한강 유역에서 기원하여 한반도 남북으로 이동했는데, 태양을 숭배하고, 동아시아에서 가장 일찍 벼농사를 시작하여 농경단계에 들어간 부족이었고, 부족장은 남성부족장이었다. 맥부족은 원래 대릉하(大凌河)유역에서 기원하여, 女神을 숭배하는 곰토템부족이었다. 玉장식 문화를 크게 발전시킨 부족이었고, 부족장은 여성부족장이었다. 신석기 말기 요서지방 紅山문화유적은 맥족이 만든 유적 유물이었다. 맥부족의 홍산문화는 고조선 개국에 흡수되었다. 예부족은 원래 예강(지금의 눈강)유역에서 기원하여, 범을 신으로 숭배하는 범토템부족이었다. 처음에는 목축을 주로 하여 강을 따라 동남으로 이동하였다. 위의 3부족의 주류는 더 나은 정착지를 찾아 천천히 이동하는 중에 대동강 상류 부근에서 접촉하게 되었다. 3부족은 가장 먼저 농경단계에 들어간 한부족을 중심으로 B.C. 30세기~B.C. 24세기에 부족연맹을 형성하였다. 이때 부족연맹의 방식은 한부족에서 왕을 내고, 맥부족에서 왕비를 내는 혼인동맹에 의거하였다. 한부족에서 왕을 내었기 때문에 고조선의 통치를 받은 모든 부족들은 왕을 "han" 또는 "gahan"으로 불렀다. 고조선에서는 지방장관을 "ga"로 불렀기 때문에 "ga-han"이 "ga-han"이 된 것이었다. 한부족 군장과 맥부족 군장부인 사이에서 아들이 태어나서 장성하자, 이를 "단군"이라는 이름의 제왕으로 추대하고 "조선" 이름의 국가를 건국하였다. 예부족은 고조선 국가에 연맹하되 어느 정도 자율성을 갖고 예부족 군장이 통치하는 고조선의 후국으로 연맹에 참가하였다. 단국은 고조선을 건국함과 동시에 수도를 "아사달"(Asadar)로 정했는데, 첫 "아사달"은 대동강 중류 "강동군"으로 비정된다. 고조선의 영역이 확대됨에 따라 후에 수도를 만주 요하 부근으로 옮겼다. 고조선은 영역이 확대됨에 따라 수도 이외에도 몇 개의 부 수도를 두었다. Go-Joseon is the first ancient state of Korea. This ancient state of Go-Joseon was established between 30 BCE and 24 BCE when three tribes, Han, Ye and Maek formed a confederated alliance. It represents the first ancient state in Northeast Asia. The tribe, crucial to the formation of Go-Joseon, was Han which originated in the Han river valley, but later migrated to the southern and northern parts of the Korean peninsula. Han tribe worshipped the Sun, and it is remarkable that it was the first tribe in East Asia to engage in the cultivation of rice and to lead the society to an agricultural stage. Its chieftain was male. Maek tribe which originated in the estuary of Daeneung river, worshipped female deity and regarded bear as its totem. This tribe made immense contribution to the development of jade decoration and ornaments, and its chieftain was female. The sites associated with Hongsan(Hungshan) Cultrue are the legacy and heritage bequeathed by the Maek tribe. Ye tribe which originated in the Ye river (currently Nun river) valley, worshipped tiger. This tribe with tiger-totem, led primarily a pastoral life, and later migrated along river bank to Southeast. The mainstream of the above-noted three tribes ushered into a long and arduous process of migration in search of a better habitat and in the course of time reached the upper estuary of Daedong river where they settled down and intermingled with one another. These tribes formed a tribal confederation, based on matrimonial alliance, sometime between 30 BCE and 24 BCE. Han tribe, the first to reach an agricultural stage, served as the mainstay or dominant power of this tribal confederation, and this explains why kings were chosen from Han tribe. Maek tribe provided queens. Since kingship was monopolized by the Han tribe, all the tribes under the rule of Go-Joseon called the king "han" or "gahan". Since provincial ministers were called "ga""ga-han" became "Gahan". When a child was born out of the union between the chieftain (king), belonging to Han tribe and Lady Chieftain (queen) belonging to the Maek tribe, he was conferred with the royal title of Dangun and thus the state of Go-Joseon was formed. Ye tribe joined the confederated state of Go-Joseon, but it maintained certain degree of autonomy. When Dangun assumed kingship of Go-Joseon, he established "Asadar" as the capital. The first capital (asadar) is assumed to have been set up in Gangdong-gun, siteated in the mid-estuary of Daedong river. As the territory of Go-Joseon expanded, the capital shifted to the vicinity of Yoha (Chinese: Liaohe) in Manchuria and it established several minor capitals, in addition to the main capital.

고조선문명 형성의 기반과 한강문화의 세계최초 단립벼 및 콩의 재배 경작

신용하(Shin, Yong-Ha) 고조선단군학회 2014 고조선단군학 Vol.31 No.-

Go-Joseon civilization was the first ancient East Asian civilization established on the Korean peninsula and Manchuria in 3,000 BC by integrating the Han River culture, the Taedong River culture, and Hongshan culture. As a preceding foundation of Go-joseon civilization, Han River culture’s contribution to the cultivation of japonica (danrip) rice in 12,500 BP is the start of what is now widely known as “rice farming.” There is evidence of this when japonica rice seeds dating back 12,500 BP ± 150 years were found during excavations near the South Han River and Geum River basin. Additionally, Jodongri-based japonica (danrip) rice seeds (from 4,250~4,290 BC), Dacheonri-based japonica (danrip) rice seeds, wheat, barley, beans, foxtail millet and proso millet (from 3,500 BC) found in close proximity to the South Han River and the Geum River basin, Gawaji rice seeds found near Goyang city (3,360 BC ± 80 years) all provide support for such cultivation. The farming of japonica rice, beans, millet, wheat, and barley also spread to other parts of the Korean peninsula including areas near the Yeongsan River, Seomjin River, Nakdong River, Imjin River, Ryesong (Yeseong) River, Chongchon River, and the Amrok (Yalu) River. Moreover, the Han River culture’s method of rice cultivation traveled to the Liaodong peninsula and was used by the Dongyi (東夷) tribes living near the north of the Yangtze River on the eastern coast of China, and also to Kyushu, Japan. Although there is evidence of conventional rice cultivation near the Yangtze River, excavation of the Oksumam (玉蟾岩) cave revealed two grains of indica (jangrip) rice dating back to 11,000 bp. When directly comparing japonica rice to indica rice, the former derives from the Neolithic Han River culture, originating from the central region of the Korean peninsula. Following the establishment of the Go-joseon state and civilization, japonica rice cultivation traveled and became prevalent throughout East Asia. As one of the earliest human independent civilizations, Go-joseon civilization contributed the cultivation of japonica (danrip) rice, and beans and served as a basis for a unique pattern of food culture of rice and soy sauce(and soybean paste) in Korean and East Asian Civilizations.

김옥균의 (金玉均) 개회사상

신용하 ( Yong Ha Shin ) 연세대학교 국학연구원 1985 동방학지 Vol.46-48 No.-

‘민족’의 사회학적 설명과 ‘상상의 공동체론’ 비판

신용하(Yong-ha Shin) 한국사회학회 2006 韓國社會學 Vol.40 No.1

이 논문은 ‘민족’이 사회역사적으로 형성된 ‘실재의 공동체’임을 사회학적으로 설명하여, 앤더슨의 민족이 ‘상상의 공동체’라는 주장을 비판한 것이다. 앤더슨은 민족이란 실재하지 않는 것인데, 18세기에 민족주의적 문필가들이 정치적 목적으로 ‘민족’이라는 허구를 상상케 하는 서적들을 지방어로 써서 인쇄자본주의가 대량 출판 보급하여 지방민들도 ‘민족’이라는 허구를 상상하게 되어 ‘상상의 공동체’(민족)가 형성되었다고 주장하였다. 그러나 앤더슨의 ‘상상의 공동체론’은 사회사적 인과관계 분석부터 잘못되어 있다. 민족주의가 먼저 형성되어 그 결과로 민족이 출현한 것이 아니라, 먼저 민족이 형성되고 그 다음에 민족주의가 출현하였다. 민족은 인간이 동일한 언어ㆍ지역ㆍ문화ㆍ혈연ㆍ정치ㆍ경제생활ㆍ역사ㆍ민족의식을 공동으로 하여 오랜 기간 사회생활을 하는 과정에서 공고하게 결합하여 형성된 구체적 명칭까지 가진 실재의 인간공동체이다. 인쇄자본주의가 지방어로 쓴 서적을 대량 공급하기 이전에 이미 먼저 종족ㆍ원민족ㆍ전근대민족 또는 근대민족이 형성되어 있었다. 민족주의적 문필가들의 서적은 ‘민족’을 형성한 것이 아니라 이미 형성되어 있던 민족의 민족의식을 더욱 강렬하게 강화해서 ‘민족주의’ 형성에 일정의 역할을 했다고 보아야 할 것이다. The purpose of this paper lies in sociologically explaining the “nation” as a sociohistorically formed “real communities” and in critiquing Benedict Anderson’s view that it is but an “imagined communities.” According to Anderson, the nation does not exist in reality. Rather, the “imagined communities” of the “nation” was formed when provincial residents came to imagine this fiction which was called “nation” after nationalistic writers had, for political purposes, penned books in the vernacular prompting the reader to imagine the fictive category of the “nation” and print capitalism had subsequently published and disseminated them en masse in the 18th century. Anderson’s theory of the “imagined communities,” however, is flawed even in its causal analysis of social history. In other words, the “nation” did not come into being as a result of the formation of nationalism. Instead, the “nation” predated and gave rise to nationalism. The “nation” is an actual human community historically formed through the solid integration of a group of people who have lived together for a long time based on the common language, territory, culture, kinship, polity, economic life, history, and national consciousness, even possessing a concrete name. Even before 18th-century print capitalism produced and disseminated en masse books in the vernacular, there already existed Volks(ethnies), proto-nations, premodern nations, or modern nations. It is therefore more reasonable to say that nationalistic writers, instead of forming the “nation,” played a role in the formation of nationalism by reinforcing a national consciousness that already existed among members of a “nation.”

고조선문명 형성에 들어간 貊족의 紅山문화의 특징

신용하(Shin, Yong-Ha) 고조선단군학회 2015 고조선단군학 Vol.32 No.-

Chinese Archeologists have excavated near the Xiaoling River, Daling River, and Sira Moren River Basin and have found relics and ruins dating back to the Neolithic period between 7,000 BC~3,000 BC. Although they have described this as being Hongshan Culture, there is a lack of disclosure as to who created such culture. I argue that the Maek Tribe is in fact the creator of Hongshan Culture. Evidence has been found in Niuheliang at a Hongshan shrine, where a clay statue of a goddess and the broken remains of a “bear” sculpture were unearthed. Additionally, the Chinese character, “Maek” is used to convey, “bear” in both the Korean and Japanese languages. The origins of the Maek tribe include its people surviving the Ice Age while living in caves found on the Korean peninsula, and later through the Neolithic period dating from 12,000 bp~7,000 bp. Following the end of the Ice Age around 7,000 BC, the tribesman set out towards newly formed lands and created the “Hongshan Culture” in their new environment. By 3,000 BC, sudden climate change in the Niuheliang area caused a decrease in rainfall and affected the region’s agriculture. As a result, Niuheliang’s female chief led the Maek tribe southeast, crossing the Amnok (Yalu) River and the Liandong Peninsula, until they encountered the patriarchal Han tribe. Rather than engaging in warfare over territorial disputes, the Maek tribe’s female chief and the Han tribe’s male chief agreed on a peaceful solution through a marriage alliance. This resulted in a king from the Han tribe and a queen from the Maek tribe, followed by the birth of a son named Dangun. Dangun unified the two tribes and between 30 BC~24 BC, he designated Asadal as the capital, leading to the formation of the ancient state Go-Joseon and of the Go-Joseon civilization. Thus, it can be concluded that the Maek tribe was not only the creator of Hongshan culture, but also had contributed the the formation and the development of the Go-Joseon civilization.