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金榮濟(Kim Young-Jae) 동양사학회 2005 東洋史學硏究 Vol.91 No.-
In the long term trend, author try to observe the grain price of Song Dynasty and confirmed that it was deeply related to a population tendency. The grain price of Northern Song Dynasty showed a terraced rising trend and in case of Southern Song Dynasty showed a slight rising trend. If we observe the price on the aspect of short term trends, following factors are admitted. In Renjong(仁宗) period, the grain price rose suddenly because there carne peace and the growth of population and currency supply. Author can interpret that the speedy rising of the grain price of that period gave a severe blow to salary men, handicraft workers and special product producers because of social division of labor. So in Shenjong(神宗) period the government intervened in supply and demand of currency positively. At the same time through the enforcement of New Policy, they increased the supply of the grain. From the result, the grain price could keep stabilization to the level of Renjong(仁宗) period. In Huijong(徽宗) period, the grain price and the silk price increased largely, on account of issue of the large denomination coin and increase of financial expenditure. But the rising ratio of grain price was much larger than the silk price. May be author suppose that it raised many problems to the society in those days. Also the price level of that period reflected on Southern Song periods. In Southern Song Dynasty, choice of grain seeds, improvement of the grain store capacity, administrative effort against the natural disaster had been done from Northern Song Dynasty which helped stabilization of the grain price. By the way, people became to spend much silk because of the spread of luxurious consumption, therefore rising ratio of silk price was larger than the grain price. In Tang and Song Dynasty, prices became to rise due to growth of the population. Innovation of that period was asserted by ahead scholars, author can interpret it in the aspect of price movement. Disorganization of Equal Land System, the development of the possession of large land, the frontier movement and the expansion of irrigation works are all related with rising trend of the grain price. That is, speculation on the land was increased because of a sudden rise of the grain price, by reason of that peasantry was dissolved under the Equal Land System, at the same time it brought the development of the manor and appearance of the tenant. Besides the grain price rose because demand of the grain was increased continually on account of the organization of professional soldier, the increase of soldier, the development of cities and the expansion of social specialization. In case of argument on the burden of double tax system in Song Dynasty, the peasantry of Southern Song Dynasty had increased of their income and reduction of burden the double tax relatively to the peasantry of Northern Song. But in Southern Song Dynasty, various surtax was imposed to the peasantry. Therefore ahead scholars interpreted that the peasantry of Southern Song had a heavy tax burden. But due to the increase of land clearing and amount of production, though we add the double tax to whole surtax(加耗米, 和買絹, 折帛錢, 免役錢), the tax burden which occupied from income per a Mou(畝) was very low. In case of Jiangxi Wuzhou(江西路, 撫州), that was a semi-developed area, the whole tax burden of that places was about 2.5% no matter how high author may estimate. Besides in Song Dynasty, there was a difference among areas on the tax burden due to the difference grain price among areas. At the advanced area where the grain price and the density of population was high whose tax burden was low in comparison with underdeveloped area.
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11-19세기 일본과 한국의 경제성장과 ‘소분기’: 『일본경제의 역사』 중세 ,근세의 서평을 대신하여
김재호 ( Jae Ho Kim ) 경제사학회 2019 經濟史學 Vol.43 No.2
이 연구의 목적은 2017년에 출간된 岩波講座 『日本經濟の歷史』에서 제시된 일본 중세 ·근세의 경제를 ‘경제성장’을 중심으로 같은 시기 한국경제와 비교하는 것이다. 수량적 비교를 위하여 한국의 인구, 농업 생산, 인구 밀도, 도시화율, 조세부담률, 임금에 관한 연구를 종합하고 새롭게 추계하였으며, 경제성장의 원천과 패턴을 비교하기 위하여 양국의 정치제도와 토지소유권을 비롯한 제도적 차이에 주목하였다. 한국은 일본과 마찬가지로 14-15세기에 농업 생산이 증가하였는데, 19세기까지 지속적으로 성장한 일본과 대조적으로 한국은 16세기 이후 성장이 지속되지 못하였다. 특히, 16세기 말 전쟁의 충격으로 농업생산이 위축되고 1인당 농업 생산도 격감하였다. 17세기에 전쟁 이전 수준으로 회복하였지만 18세기 중반에 정점에 도달한 이후 정체하였으며, 그 결과 19세기에 양국의 농업 생산과 1인당 농업 생산의 차이가 크게 벌어지게 되었다. 16세기부터 시작된 양국 간의 ‘小分岐’(little divergence)는 근원적으로는 시장경제의 발달, 농민공동체의 자치 능력, 토지소유권의 보장, 정부의 재정 능력 등의 차이가 원인이었다. 조선왕조는 민간의 경제 활동과 재정 운영에 있어서 시장경제와의 접촉을 가능한 제한하고자 하였으며 조선왕조의 집권성과 시장경제의 낮은 수준은 그것을 가능하게 하였다. 농업 생산에 있어서는 생산 증가를 유인하는 인센티브라는 점에서 일본에 비하여 불리하였다. 인구의 상당 부분이 노비 신분이었으며, 조세납부의 책임이 농민들의 단체가 아닌 지방관에게 부여되었고, 지주제가 발달하였기 때문이다. 농업 생산이 정체하는 가운데 인구 증가로 인해 가중된 인구 압력은 지방장시를 대상으로 하는 상공업 인구를 증가시켰을 것이지만 도시화율이 매우 낮고 중소 도시나 농촌의 부업의 발달이 저조하였기 때문에 인구 압력을 해소하기는 어려웠다. The paper attempts to compare the Japanese middle age and early modern economy presented in the Iwanami Lecture History of the Japanese Economy published in 2017 with the Korean economy focusing on ‘economic growth’. In order to compare quantitatively, the researches on population, agricultural production, population density, urbanization rate, tax burden and wage of Korea are summarized and newly estimated. And to compare the sources and patterns of economic growth, the study pays attention to institutional differences originated from political system and land property rights. In Korea, like Japan, agricultural production increased in the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries. In contrast to Japan, which continued to grow until the nineteenth century, the impact of the war at the end of the sixteenth century sharply depressed agricultural production and reduced per capita agricultural production in Korea. They recovered to pre-war level in the seventeenth century but stagnated after reaching its peak in the mid-eighteenth century. As a result, in the nineteenth century, the difference between agricultural production and per capita agricultural production of both countries became more significant. The ‘little divergence’, which started in the sixteenth century, was originally due to the gap of development of the market economy, the autonomy of the farmers’ communities, the guarantee of land ownership, and the fiscal capacity of the government. The Chosun dynasty tried to limit contact with the market economy in the economic activities of the private sector and financial administrations of the government, and the low level of the market economy and the central dominance of the Chosun dynasty made it possible. In agricultural production, Korea was disadvantageous to Japan in that a large part of the population was a slave, and the responsibility for paying taxes was given to provincial governments, not farmers’ organizations, and the sharecropping system was highly developed. While agriculture production was stagnating, the population pressure increased the industrial and commercial population targeting the local markets, but it was difficult to solve the population pressure problem because the urbanization rate was very low and the development of small and medium sized cities or rural job opportunities was poor.
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