朝鮮時代 都市에 관한 硏究 : 制度的 機能的 側面을 중심으로

다국어 초록 (Multilingual Abstract)

So far as the cities of Korea are concerned, the close of an era of preindustrial type dates far back to one hundred years ago. But yet, there has been left a faint trance of an aspect of the cities of preindustrial type. Moreover, the preindustrial type itself has undoubtedly remained as it was in some limited areas of a certain province. This means nothing but a revelation of the delay caused in the process of the transition to the industrial type or a kind of relic. All the cities of Korea have changed into those of a preindustrial type. Yet, the cities with a long tradition had to undergo a change leading to a developmental stage, being tied by so-called archetype ＿ a frame fixed through many centuries before the foundation of a state. This was attributable to unchangeability of a geographic position and a continuity latent in a way of living and thinking.
Accordingly, it was keenly felt necessary to grasp a right archetype of the city built by our forefathers in order to have a correct understanding of the reality and make a judgement on the future of the cities of Korea. Now here, it may fairly be said that the purpose of this study is underlain by the necessity aforementioned.
Indefinite as it is, the emergence of the cities of Korea dates far back to the ancient times, about 3,000 years ago. It was not until Yi Dynasty that they came into existence as an integral type of the cities. They had been consolidated in systematic features and modulated in an aspect of function through long periods of Sam-Kuk, Unified Silla, and Koryo Dynasty. Through 500 years of Yi Dynasty, the capital city of Hansung as well as other provincial cities became to form the villages of municipal type.
As were often the cases with the cities of foreign countries prior to industrial revolution, it could scarcely be expected to gain a surplus out of products in these days of underdeveloped technology. Whereas, the first consideration was given to the location of a royal family. Therefore, it was inevitable that the central government concentrated its deep concern and investment on the capital city of Hansung. This fact can possibly be reviewed from another angle, a geographic situation in which every road from provincial areas was led to the capital city of Hansung along the foot of the hills and valleys. Thus, the capital city of Hansung came to embrace 100,000 inhabitants even at the beginning of the Dynasty. In later years of the Dynasty, the capital city of Hansung made great strides as one of the largest cities with the population of 200,000 citizens all over the world.
As for provincial cities, administrative unit such as Bu, Mok, Gun, and Hyun came into existence according to historic and geographic situation, the size of the sphere of jurisdiction, and national security standpoint. Subsequently, the seat of provincial administrative office, so-called "town", became to function as a city embracing a larger population compared with other large villages.
The cities during the period of preindustrial type functioned mainly as the center of administration and national defense. Unexceptionably, a provincial admiministrative unit such as Bu, Mok, Gun, and Hyun underwent a change with the transition of times and the unit resulted in the division into 330 to 340 units. Consequently, the number of "town" ranged from 330 to 340. It must undoubtedly admitted that there was a difference of the size of the units from one another. The largest ones were such cities as Kaesung, Pyungyang, Chonju, Chungju, and Sangju. Such towns as Kyongju, Tongrae, Milyang, Chinju, Naju, Kwangju, Anju, and Hamhung were regarded as considerably large sized cities of preindustrial type.
Reviewing economic activities in the cities of preindustrial type, they were found somewhat dull. This was due to the fact that high society in these days regarded with contempt laboring class as well as those in contact with laboring class. In another word, they were rather oppressed than encouraged.
Manufacturing was controlled with a view to meeting the demand by royal family, Yangban and ruling class. And there were only a few laboring class authorized to engage in the manufacture and supply of the necessities demanded by royal family and governmental office.
Besides, there were their subsidiaries and other independent handicraft workers engaging in the manufacture and supply of the necessities demanded by ordinary people, Some of them dwelt in rural areas where raw materials for the manufacture were obtainable, while many others inhabited in the cities like Seoul, independent of raw materials by the nature of their handicraft works.
As munufacturing was basically despised and oppressed under self-sustentation system commerce at that time was not flourishing as well. Such being the case, agriculture was a fundamental means of production. Eventually, the commerce, whose major role was to gain a profit by moving around from place to place, was inevitably oppressed.
In Seoul, there was set up a general store authorized to supply various commodities demanded by royal family, governmental office and those lived in the capital city. In addition, markets appeared in many was set up in most of provincial cities for a long time.
It was the later part of 15th century that a market appeared for the first time in the provincial city of Chullado from a necessity of famine. Along with this, the markets gradually extended to be appeared throughout the country in spite of a steadfast policy by the government authority to hold in check and the number of the markets amounted to over 1,000 by the end of 17th century. In general, these markets were opened every five days and the site where the market was opened was required to be provided with three geographic conditions - a large number of people to use the market, availability of commodity supply in large quantities, and site as the center of transportation and communication. If only these three conditions were satisfied, there appeared and flourished the market. If not, the market met with natural selection. It was a general trend that the market was set up in the seat of provincial administrative office, such as Bu, Gun, and Hyun, which was densely populated and geographically located as the center of transportation. Provincial cities of the period of Yi Dynasty were characterized in being the center of administration, national defense, and economic activities including the demand and supply of commodities. Exceptionally, there were also appeared markets in some other places than the seats of provincial administrative office. It was also due to a geographic peculiarity such as a junction of transportation by water of land route. Incidentally, cities emerged along with the appearance of markets. The city of Kangkyung, Wonsan, Janghowon, Samnangjin, and Masanpo were typical examples.
It was usual that buying and sellingl was carried out in the market place during the daytime on an pre-arranged date and the market was dispersed with the sunset. Later on with the expansion of transaction, there appeared constant city dealers chiefly engaged in whole sales and money lending. Further, lodging and liquor entertainment business came into the world. And peddlers engaged in making a connection between a market and another and between a market and a household made use of lodging and liquor serving. Thus, peddlers made a contribution to the nation-wide circulation of commodities and systematization of market information.
As common to a traditional society, there existed a strict social class in the days of Yi Dynasty. Activity of the inhabitant in these days was sternly regulated according to his social status. The following findings were obtained through an analysis of a constitution by social status of the total inhabitants up to the beginning of 17th century.
1) Irrespective of urban and rural area, approximately 5 to 10% of population constitution by social status was found to be Yang-ban class. Approximately 45% of the rest 90% was found to be people of mediocrity, while another 40 to 45% was found to be slavery.
2) Regarding a urban area, 40 to 45% was found to be people of mediocrity, while 45 to 50% slavery.
3) The number of public serving slaves, subordinated to the government authority, was found to amount to 200,000 out of a total number of slaves. The majority of them were found to have dwelt in large city as Seoul.
It was natural that the Dynasty, which was originated at the end of 14th century, met with turning points many times through 500 years of its existence. Also, a great change was made in the social features through a transition. While the market, which emerged at the middle of 15th century, extended gradually all over the country, sovereign system of the Dynasty was weakened by a frequent political disorder with the beginning of 16th century. After war affairs broken out twice successively, the national institutions including military and taxation system were demolished. The downfall resulted in the emergence of 18th century. Consecutively, there emerged self-farming workers out of feudal sub-land owner class. The farmers, who were reduced to poverty, were inclined to leave rural area for urban area. In urban areas, the ruin of government supporting industry brought about the progress of independent manual industry.
With the rise of a level of the technology of manual industry, mass production of varied commodities, and increase in the population of manual industry workers, there was organized a rigid system of municipal manual industry represented by mutual competition and subdivision of works and guild formation, which was finally shifted into a type of production subsequent to capitalism. From that time on, a remarkable progress was made in the phase of commerce; trade with China and Japan, dissemination of metal currency, and an increase in the population of merchant. The merchant in these days accumulated the wealth by means of transaction centered on the city of Seoul and its vicinity. They united together tightly and made and attempt to challenge against a traditional order of commerce and eventually made a success in the establishment of a new commercial order which allowed to guarantee the right of equality and free competition in their transaction. At the same time, merchants from the city of Kaesung took a lead in the establishment of nation-wide transaction net in cooperation with those from the city of Uiju who earned much money through the trade with China, those of the city of Tongnae who also grew rich through the trade with Japan, and those who made a success in the cities of various provinces or at market places. The progress of commerce and industry in the provincial cities was attributable to the continued effort made by these merchants. As the result, handicraft as well as agricultural products such as ginseng were transacted on a large scale. The selling system adopted in conformity to capitalism was launched by an intensive application of the money capital put into commerce and industry.
The official buildings, ordinary houses, and other facilities in the cities, which had totally been devastated through the war affairs of Imjin and Byungja, were almost rehabilitated from the later part of 17th century through the end of 18th century.
Such structures as Changduck Palace and Changgyung Palace, the remains from the days of Yi Dynasty, are still existing in Seoul up to the present time. It is estimated that these palaces were built during the period under the rule of King Siukjong, Youngjoing, and Chongjong in 18th century.
Civil engineering works including re-construction of the city fortress, construction of the fortress on the Mt. Bukhan, and dredging works at the River Chungkae were all done during the same period. Pungnam Gate in Chonju, the enclosures in Suwon, Choksuc Tower in Chinju, and many other community school buildings were reckoned as the same.
Through the two war affairs of Imjin and Byungja, there was a remarkable decrease in the population of Seoul. Yet, in the later part of 17th century, a sudden increase was made in the population of Seoul. And the population size accommodating 180,000 to 200,000 inhabitants kept on up to the end of the period under the rule of King Wangjo. Thus, the city of Seoul was brought up to the level of the largest cities in the world.
As for provincial cities, a gradual increase was made in the population with the absorption of those who left rural areas for finding their ways in the field of commerce.
Yang-Ban class used to stick to rural area, while those engaged in the field of commerce and industry gathered in the city. In consequence, population constitution of the city at the beginning of 20th century was found as follows: 70% of a total number of the inhabitants was people of mediocrity. On the contrary, those belonging to Yang-Ban class together with slaves serving for them were found very few. Along with this, an explicit sense of self-consciousness arose in the mind of a few people belonging to lower class. This tendency was let to the formation of a new class of citizen with the help of a group of the sect in favor of the promotion of public welfare.
For all that, there was still vigilant watch and oppression by the royal sovereignty against newly rising class.
Population size of the capital city of Hansung and municipal villages even in the earlier part of the Dynasty was found to be larger than that of western countries. The surpassingness of the population size was resulted from the following factors.
1) Peculiarity in Monsoon region ＿ sufficient supply of drinking water feasible to a large size of population
2) A large number of workers employed for farming in the paddy field
The city of Seoul grew to the extent of world level in 18th century, accommodating 200,000 citizens. Subsequently, such cities as Kaesung, Pyungyang, Chonju, Sangju, Taegu, and Chungju respectively swelled to the size enough to accommodate 10,000-30,000 dwellers.
According to the analysis attempted by the writer, the number of the cities populated with more than 5,000 dwellers in the later part of the Dynasty was found to amount to fifty altogether. And approximately 90 towns were found to accommodate 2,000∼5,000 dwellers. Thereby, it is evident that the large size of population seen in the foregoing illustrates a striking population massings in comparison with that of foreign countries during the period of preindustrial type.
In addition to this, further survey was conducted on the following phases.
1) Formation of a sattellite city around the city of Seoul
2) Curfew time system
3) Living status of the city inhabitants during the night time
4) Length of years in which an individual house was sustained
5) Regional differentiation of dwelling situation by social status and occupation
6) Systematism of road
7) utilization of water and drainage facilities
8) Cleaning and fire-arresting system
Through the survey described in the foregoing, it was clarified that every aspect was arranged and facilitated in the justifiable and perfect manner Specifically, it is a wonderful fact that the structures in the city of Hansung were built in the later part of the Dynasty in compliance with the most oldest and excellent plan on the new town construction in the world. The master plan of a new town construction could have been a trial sample for a group of the sect who advocated better life of the city inhabitants in the later part of the Dynasty. Furthermore, it may be admitted that the plan itself was really an ideal model for better human life which people of today are eagerly pursuit of.
Herewith, a rigorous criticism needs to be made on the conventional views in which the cities during the period of the Dynasty were defined as having been in the state of desolation. Because it is quite true that the growth of the cities during the period of the Dynastry was achieved in the most satisfactory manner unpallareled with those of any foreign countries in the days of preindustrial type. And yet, it may be admitted that there is a room in which even the wrong conventional views on the cities of the period of the Dyansty might be accepted by reason of the fabrication produced by Japanese scholars faithful to Imperialism, it is no doubt that Japanese scholars faithful to Imperialism were forced to fabricate so as to conceal the real fact after Japan dominated over this country.
There is no denying that in comparison with the cities of foreign countries including Japan the cities of Korea were markedly backward in the development at the starting point of modernization. The important factors which had an effect on the delay or backwardness of modernization of the cities of Korea are enumerated in the following.
1) Topographic position of the country
2) Exclusionism of the country
3) Unfavorable influence affected by Confucianism
4) Aggression made by foreign countries
5) Devastation of the country which was resulted from the war against Japan (Imjin Waeran)

목차 (Table of Contents)

• 목차
• I 序章 = 19
• 1. 硏究의 目的 = 19
• 2. 硏究의 範圍 = 21
• 3. 槪念規定 = 23
• 4. 年久의 方法 = 28
• II 都市의 制度的 構成 -首都 및 各地方 邑의 形成- = 29
• 1. 首都 漢城府 = 29
• 1) 首都로서의 體貌 = 29
• 2) 漢城府의 區域 = 33
• 3) 漢城府 地位와 機構 = 39
• 2. 地方都市 = 41
• 1) 新羅·高麗의 地方制度 = 42
• 2) 朝鮮王朝의 地方制度 邑의 形成 = 46
• 中央直轄府(準首都) = 46
• 道制 = 48
• 「州」字 使用制限 = 50
• 郡縣改編 = 51
• III 都市의 住民構成 -前産業型都市의 技能的考察- = 60
• 1. 官人과 鄕吏 = 61
• 1) 官人 = 61
• 2) 鄕吏 = 64
• 2. 工匠과 商人 = 69
• 1) 京工匠과 外工匠 = 69
• 2) 市廛 = 73
• 3) 場市 = 80
• 4) 褓負商 = 92
• 3. 奴婢와 常人 = 95
• 1) 奴婢 = 95
• 2) 常人 = 106
• IV 王朝後期의 都市變化過程 -都市近代化의 萌芽- = 112
• 1. 序論 = 112
• 2. 資本主義的 生産體系의 萌芽 = 117
• 1) 官匠制工業體系의 解體 = 117
• 2) 都市手工業體系의 形成 = 112
• 3. 資本主義的 商業體系의 萌芽 = 129
• 1) 商業發達의 원인과 商業人口의 增加 = 129
• 2) 私商都賈의 등장과 傳統的 商秩序에의 挑戰 = 136
• 3) 商品의 全般的인 流通과 地方都市의 商業發達 = 141
• 4. 都市의 繁榮과 人口增加 = 145
• 受難과 再建 = 145
• 受難과 荒廢 = 145
• 再建과 繁榮 = 151
• 都市의 人口增加 및 住民交替現象 = 157
• 서울에의 人口集中 = 157
• 서울에 있어서의 住民交替 = 161
• 5. 住民構成 및 住民意識의 變化 = 170
• 1) 身分制度의 崩壞와 都市의 住民構成 = 170
• 身分制度의 崩壞過程 = 170
• 身分階層의 변동과 都市의 住民構成 = 177
• 2) 市民層形成의 萌芽와 啓蒙思想 = 82
• 都市住民의 自覺과 市民이 되기 위한 前提 = 82
• 小數 市民層의 形成과 啓蒙思想 = 186
• 市民運動·初期啓蒙思想의 限界 = 193
• 自我覺醒의 과정에 관한 또 하나의 考察 = 196
• V 都市人口規模와 그 國際比較 = 201
• 1. 都市人口規模와 人口密度 = 201
• 城의 人口規模와 人口密度 = 201
• 漢城의 人口規模 = 201
• 漢城의 人口密度= 204
• 2) 地方都市人口와 都市人口率 = 207
• 3) 都市의 人口密度 = 215
• 4) 都市人口를 통한 몇가지 分析 = 221
• 5) 首都의 人口規模 = 226
• 6) 漏戶·漏口와 都市人口 = 228
• 2. 都市人口規模의 國際比較= 230
• VI 王朝後期 서울 주변에 형성된 衛星都市 = 241
• 1. 京江商人과 江邊衛星都市 = 241
• 1) 京江商人의 등장과 江邊定着化 = 241
• 2) 龍山·麻浦西 = 250
• 3) 西氷庫·東氷庫 = 257
• 4) 頭毛浦·뚝섬 = 258
• 2. 二次的衛星都市 = 263
• 1) 松坡·樓院 = 263
• 2) 말죽거리·果川 = 271
• 3. 結語 = 273
• VII 都市의 休息-通行禁止制度 -都市相硏究 (1)- = 277
• 1. 人定과 罷漏 = 277
• 1) 都市의 休息-人定과 罷漏 = 277
• 2) 通行禁止 性別時差制 = 285
• 2. 人定鐘과 鐘閣 = 289
• 1) 서울의 人定鐘과 鐘閣 = 289
• 2) 地方都市의 人定·罷漏와 人定鐘 = 296
• 3. 人定·罷漏制度의 종말 = 300
• VIII 垈地 및 住宅規模의 制限과 住居立地의 地域分化 -都市相硏究 (2)- = 303
• 1. 垈地 및 住宅規模의 制限 = 303
• 1) 垈地規模의 制限 = 303
• 2) 住宅規模의 制限 = 308
• 2. 住居立地의 地域分化現象 = 319
• 1) 서울에 있어서의 地域分化 = 319
• 2) 地方都市에 있어서의 地域分化 = 325
• IX 道路制度·道路事情과 假家 -都市相硏究 (3)- = 332
• 1. 道路制度와 道路事情 = 332
• 1) 路幅과 街路網 = 332
• 2) 地方都市의 道路와 街路網 = 342
• 3) 道路의 修理 = 346
• 4) 街路 = 347
• 2. 道路의 侵犯과 假家 = 349
• X 生活用水 및 排水施設 -都市相硏究 (4)- = 354
• 1. 生活用水 = 354
• 2. 排水施設 = 361
• 1) 開川 = 361
• 都城內의 第一次 開川工事 = 362
• 第二次 開川工事 = 365
• 開川이라는 이름 = 367
• 龍山-南大門間 運河굴착案 = 368
• 2) 濬川 = 369
• 開川준설의 필요성 = 369
• 開川준설의 실제 = 371
• 3) 地方都市의 開川 = 376
• XI 淸掃狀態와 消防制度 -都市相硏究 (5)- = 378
• 1. 淸掃狀態 = 378
• 2. 火災와 消防制度 = 385
• 1) 水造建築의 火災와 禁火令 = 385
• 2) 消防體制의 確立 = 389
• 3) 그후의 改定 = 395
• 修城禁火都監이 修城禁火司로 = 395
• 滅火軍의 설치 = 397
• 空間確保의 制度化 = 398
• 延燒防止策 = 398
• 4) 都市의 大火災 = 399
• XII 都市의 發達이 늦어진 要因 = 402
• 1. 序論 = 402
• 2. 國土의 地政學的位置 = 406
• 3. 鎖國政策 = 408
• 4. 儒敎의 弊害 = 418
• 1) 儒敎의 排他性과 形式性 = 418
• 2) 崇儒排佛政策과 都市-都市와 佛敎 = 423
• 3) 儒敎의 隱遁思想과 都市 = 436
• 5. 地方分權的 封建制度의 缺如 = 438
• 6. 外勢의 侵入 = 444
• 1) 外勢의 侵入과 文明의 破壞 = 444
• 2) 丙子胡亂과 壬辰倭亂 비교 = 456
• 3) 壬辰倭亂의 經科와 被害 = 458
• 7. 그 밖의 要因들 = 463
• 1) 木造建物과 草家집 = 463
• 2) 儉素節約하는 生活의 强要 = 471
• 參考文獻 = 475
• SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION = 487