Recently, the United States has continuously demanded that major allies, including NATO members, Japan, and South Korea, increase their defense spending and expand their share of security costs. In particular, these pressures have intensified since th...
Recently, the United States has continuously demanded that major allies, including NATO members, Japan, and South Korea, increase their defense spending and expand their share of security costs. In particular, these pressures have intensified since the inauguration of the second Trump administration in 2025. Why, then, does the United States demand that its allies assume greater defense burdens? Should these demands be understood merely as cost-sharing pressure or fiscal negotiations, or should they be interpreted as an alliance strategy linked to the instability of U.S. hegemony in a changing international order? Starting from this problem awareness, this study analyzes the structural effects of U.S. pressure on allies to increase defense spending under the conditions of unstable hegemony.
Previous studies have largely explained changes in U.S. hegemony from the perspectives of either hegemonic decline or hegemonic persistence. The decline perspective emphasizes the relative weakening of U.S. capabilities, overextension, fiscal burdens, and the rise of China, whereas the persistence perspective highlights U.S. military power, financial power, technological capacity, institutional leadership, and alliance networks as the basis for the continued viability of U.S. hegemony. In addition, studies on alliance burden-sharing have analyzed cost-sharing between the United States and its allies mainly in terms of free-riding, unequal cost distribution, host-nation support negotiations, and bargaining structures within asymmetric alliances. However, these studies have tended either to understand U.S. hegemony within the dichotomy of decline and persistence or to treat the expansion of allies’ burdens primarily as a matter of cost-sharing and negotiation. As a result, they have not sufficiently explained the condition in which the United States still maintains core advantages, while the conditions for sustaining its hegemony have become increasingly unstable. Nor have they fully explained the process through which U.S. pressure on allies to increase defense spending may widen the capability gap with external competitors and, internally, maintain and strengthen U.S. superiority within the alliance by expanding the relative gap between the United States and its allies.
In response, this study does not define the current state of U.S. hegemony as decline. Instead, it conceptualizes it as unstable hegemony, a condition in which the foundations of hegemonic maintenance have partially weakened and the need for strategic adjustment has increased. This study also analyzes U.S. demands for increased allied defense spending not as simple cost reduction or fiscal negotiation, but as a strategy that may produce structural effects under the conditions of unstable hegemony. Through this strategy, the hegemon redistributes the costs and roles of maintaining the alliance system, strengthens alliance-level capabilities against external competitors, widens the capability gap, and internally maintains and reinforces its relative superiority over its allies. Ultimately, this study examines how the structural effects of U.S. pressure on allies to increase defense spending may be linked to the formation of conditions for the reconsolidation of hegemony.
This study sets the period from the inauguration of the first Trump administration in 2017 to April 2026 as its main temporal scope and analyzes NATO, Japan, and South Korea as major cases. Methodologically, it adopts a qualitative case study approach, combining literature review, document and discourse analysis, and comparative case analysis. Defense spending increases are treated as the core object of analysis, while demands for increased host-nation support are addressed in a limited manner as supplementary cost-sharing elements that appear in conjunction with pressure to increase defense spending.
The findings of this study are as follows. First, although the United States still possesses core assets as the central state of the international order, the conditions for maintaining its hegemony have weakened compared with the past. This study analyzes this development through five categories: rule-setting capacity, cost structure and strategic sustainability, domestic governance capacity and social legitimacy, alliance and peripheral management capacity, and changes in the gap with competing powers. The analysis shows that the United States exhibits the characteristics of unstable hegemony in terms of the weakening legitimacy and consent basis of rule-setting, increasing cost burdens from overseas engagement, deepening domestic political polarization and policy volatility, accumulated burdens in alliance and peripheral management, and the narrowing relative gap with competitors such as China.
Second, U.S. demands for increased allied defense spending can be interpreted as a strategy of cost and role adjustment under the conditions of unstable hegemony. NATO’s upward revision of defense spending targets, Japan’s defense buildup and expansion of defense expenditures, and U.S. demands for increased defense spending and host-nation support from South Korea demonstrate that the United States is raising the overall burden-sharing standards for its allies. This change can be understood as a redefinition of allies, not merely as recipients of unilateral U.S. protection, but as actors expected to assume greater responsibility for their own defense and regional security.
Third, U.S. pressure to increase defense spending operates within the alliance dilemma. Allies that depend on U.S. security commitments may fear abandonment if they reject U.S. demands. Under such conditions, allies are more likely to accept increased defense spending and expanded military roles in order to maintain U.S. security commitments. By contrast, the United States can reduce the burden of direct intervention in regional crises and mitigate the risk of entrapment by strengthening the autonomous defense capabilities of its allies.
Fourth, U.S. pressure to increase defense spending may generate a defense dilemma within allied states. Increased defense spending can produce positive short-term effects, such as strengthened military capabilities, enhanced deterrence, defense industrial growth, and technological development. However, if a high level of defense burden persists over the long term, it may create resource allocation conflicts with other policy areas, including welfare spending, growth-oriented investment, industrial policy, and technological innovation. These constraints may burden the policy flexibility, growth potential, and industrial transformation capacity of allied states and may further affect the relative distribution of capabilities among states.
Fifth, U.S. pressure on allies to increase defense spending may have dual effects on relations with external competitors and on the internal structure of alliances. Externally, increased allied defense spending and expanded military contributions may strengthen the overall response capabilities of U.S.-led alliances and help maintain or widen the capability gap with competitors such as China. Internally, the expansion of allies’ cost and role burdens may generate a defense dilemma for allied states, while the United States can partially reduce its direct security burden and secure greater room for investment in its own economic growth base and advanced military capabilities. Over the long term, this process may help maintain or widen the relative gap between the United States and its allies within the alliance.
Sixth, these structural effects of increased allied defense spending may contribute to alleviating the conditions of unstable U.S. hegemony. The strengthened cohesion of core allies may partially mitigate the weakening of U.S. rule-setting capacity. The expansion of allies’ cost-sharing may enhance the strategic sustainability of the United States, while the institutional and military cohesion of alliances may reduce the likelihood that domestic political volatility in the United States will lead to alliance defection or the weakening of the international order. In addition, the expansion of allied roles may reduce the U.S. burden of managing alliances and peripheral regions, and the increased capabilities of U.S.-led alliances may help manage the narrowing gap with competing powers. In this sense, U.S. pressure on allies to increase defense spending can contribute to adjusting weakened conditions of hegemonic maintenance to a more manageable level and to forming the conditions for hegemonic reconsolidation.
In conclusion, this study demonstrates that U.S. pressure on allies to increase defense spending is not merely a matter of cost reduction or fiscal negotiation, but can operate as an alliance strategy that transforms the cost-sharing and role structure of alliances under the conditions of unstable hegemony. The central conclusion of this study is that the structural effects of pressure to increase defense spending may alleviate the weakened conditions of U.S. hegemonic maintenance and form the conditions for the reconsolidation of hegemony by readjusting unstable hegemony into a more manageable condition.
The theoretical implication of this study lies in its attempt to explain changes in U.S. hegemony not through the dichotomy of decline versus persistence, but through the intermediate concept of unstable hegemony, in which relative weakening and continued superiority appear simultaneously. This study also analyzes U.S. pressure on allies to increase defense spending not merely as a matter of alliance burden-sharing or host-nation support negotiations, but as a process in which the alliance dilemma and the defense dilemma are combined. By doing so, it shows that pressure to increase defense spending may externally widen the capability gap at the alliance level and internally affect the cost-role structure and relative position of actors within the alliance.
In terms of policy implications, this study suggests that allied states such as South Korea should not view U.S. demands for increased defense spending and host-nation support only as short-term bargaining issues. Increased defense spending may contribute to alliance maintenance and the securing of security commitments, but it may also affect fiscal sustainability, policy priorities, strategic autonomy, and the long-term capacity to maintain defense power. Therefore, when responding to U.S. pressure to increase defense spending, South Korea needs to consider not only the scale of the increase itself, but also whether expanded alliance contributions actually strengthen its own defense capabilities. It also needs to manage the balance among fiscal capacity, industrial policy, technological development, welfare, and long-term national strategy.