As the importance of biodiversity conservation and the management of invasive species continues to grow, integrative biogeographic approaches capable of quantifying species distributions and dispersal mechanisms across spatial and temporal scales have...
As the importance of biodiversity conservation and the management of invasive species continues to grow, integrative biogeographic approaches capable of quantifying species distributions and dispersal mechanisms across spatial and temporal scales have become increasingly essential. Reticulitermes speratus, a subterranean termite widely distributed across temperate East Asia, exhibits extremely limited flight dispersal, high sensitivity to desiccation, and strict belowground habitat dependence. These ecological and physiological constraints suggest that its distribution, gene flow, and population structure are unlikely to be governed solely by geographic distance or topography; rather, they likely reflect the combined effects of past geological and climatic changes, contemporary environmental conditions, and local connectivity patterns.
Using microsatellite variation data collected across Korea and Japan, this study conducted an integrated analysis at three spatial–temporal scales:
(1) the historical background of large-scale divergence,
(2) the effects of current landscape conditions on gene flow, and
(3) the structural connectivity of continental-shelf island populations.
First, broad-scale population genetic analyses and ABC-RF–based temporal inferences revealed a “deep divergence + late-stage reorganization” history in R. speratus. Strong signals of historical separation between Korean and Japanese lineages, combined with evidence of admixture and recent demographic changes in southeastern Korea, indicate that the species’ current genetic structure cannot be explained by geographic distance alone. Instead, it reflects the cumulative impacts of Pleistocene climatic fluctuations, continental–island connections and disconnections, and region-specific demographic shifts.
Second, landscape genetic analyses demonstrated that gene flow in R. speratus does not conform to the Isolation by Distance (IBD) model but is instead shaped by nonlinear responses to microclimatic stress. Maximum Likelihood Population Effects (MLPE) modeling showed that the combination of minimum cloud cover (clt_min) and mean vapor pressure deficit (vpd_mean) imposed the strongest constraints on gene flow, consistent with the species’ physiological susceptibility to desiccation. Estimated Effective Migration Surfaces (EEMS) further visualized how these climatic barriers structure spatial patterns of increased and reduced effective migration, revealing, for example, that a major genetic discontinuity in southeastern Korea corresponds closely to climatic discontinuities. These results provide strong empirical support for an Isolation by Resistance (IBR) framework.
Third, analyses of continental-shelf island populations revealed a nonequilibrium and hierarchically structured network that deviates markedly from classical island biogeography’s area–isolation expectations. Genetic-distance–based network analyses identified certain islands as key hubs mediating gene flow, whereas others functioned as vulnerable peripheral nodes characterized by long-term isolation and repeated bottlenecks. Spatial autocorrelation and genetic-diversity hotspot analyses further indicated that island populations represent a complex metapopulation system shaped by historical connectivity, climatic constraints, and structural heterogeneity, rather than a simple dispersal–isolation equilibrium.
Overall, this study demonstrates that the genetic structure of R. speratus in Korea arises from the overlapping influences of three core processes:
(1) evolutionary history involving historical separation, admixture, and demographic fluctuations;
(2) environmental constraints driven primarily by moisture-related climatic stability; and
(3) unequal structural connectivity among islands and mainland habitats.
These processes interact synergistically to produce the observed contemporary patterns of genetic variation.
Finally, the study acknowledges that analyses were limited to Korea and Japan, excluding the species’ broader distribution across southern and eastern China. In these regions, thermal stress—unobserved in this study—may impose stronger constraints on R. speratus populations than moisture stress. Future research should therefore incorporate East Asia–wide sampling, high-density genomic markers such as SNPs, and climate change–based habitat and connectivity forecasting models. Such efforts will enhance predictions of invasion potential, dispersal under future climates, and the evolutionary and ecological dynamics of subterranean insects.