The Civil Code contains only a limited number of provisions regarding the requirements for and scope of damages, and the resulting gaps have traditionally been filled by case law and academic commentary based on relatively concise concepts such as the...
The Civil Code contains only a limited number of provisions regarding the requirements for and scope of damages, and the resulting gaps have traditionally been filled by case law and academic commentary based on relatively concise concepts such as the “difference theory” and the “expectation interest.” In practice, however, when determining damages equivalent to the expectation interest, issues frequently arise concerning the treatment of incurred expenses. In the majority of cases where the parties have not yet incurred the costs necessary for performance of the contract, courts have held that the expectation interest corresponds to net profit. This outcome, however, is merely a result of applying the difference theory, under which calculation of the expectation interest ultimately yields net profit. It does not mean that the expectation interest necessarily presupposes net profit in all cases. Accordingly, it is not appropriate, in cases where expenses have already been incurred, to regard the expectation interest as net profit while treating incurred expenses as a separate head of damage, nor to characterize incurred expenses as damages corresponding to the reliance interest rather than the expectation interest. Rather, because the value of the counter-performance promised by the contractual counter party already includes the value of the costs to be borne by the contracting party, where such costs have already been incurred, the expectation interest should be understood as the gross profit.
Reliance interest has traditionally been discussed as a category of damages contrasted with expectation interest, yet its concept and scope remain highly controversial. Originally, the need to compensate reliance interest was discussed primarily in connection with Article 535 of the Civil Code, but more recently many views define it more broadly as losses incurred by relying on the validity of a legal act that is void or becomes retroactively void through rescission or cancellation. While early case law denied the recovery of reliance interest in damages accompanying rescission, later decisions, premised on a broad notion of reliance interest, held that expenses incurred by the counter party may also be recoverable. Nevertheless, it is difficult to agree with the view that reliance interest should generally be included in damages for breach of contract. First, if reliance interest is defined as losses arising from reliance on the validity of a contract, such reliance inevitably includes reliance on performance, rendering any meaningful distinction from expectation interest elusive. Second, although some argue that reliance interest represents not merely a type of damage but an alternative remedial objective—allowing either realization of future benefits (expectation) or restoration to the pre-contractual position (reliance)—once a contract has been validly formed, the principle of pacta sunt servanda and the very rationale of contract law support compensating the promised value of performance rather than recognizing a liquidation-type remedy. Third, even when examining contractual culpa in contrahendo, mistake, warranty liability for defects, rescission, and other statutorily provided damage claims (Articles 601, 689, and 806), it is difficult to derive a coherent and uniform concept of reliance interest applicable to breach of contract. Except in cases of initial impossibility under Article 535, there is little normative justification for recognizing reliance damages, and Article 535 itself runs counter to international legislative trends and should be revised promptly. Accordingly, under the current Civil Code, expectation interest alone suffices as the standard for damages for breach of contract, apart from the limited case of Article 535, and reliance interest need not be treated as an independent measure of damages.
From a comparative perspective, German law likewise adopts expectation interest as the principal standard for damages, while allowing relatively broad recovery of reliance interest in cases such as avoidance for mistake, unauthorized representation, and culpa in contrahendo. These outcomes, however, derive from Germany’s specific legal system and statutory provisions and do not compel the same approach under Korean law. Germany has also addressed difficulties in proving expectation damages by introducing § 284 BGB, which allows recovery of incurred expenses—an approach worthy of consideration in Korea. In the United States, reliance interest became established as one of three contractual damage measures following Fuller and Perdue, yet even they acknowledged the conceptual overlap and ambiguity between reliance and expectation interests. In practice, reliance damages are primarily used where proof of expectation interest is difficult, and the concept has subsequently faced substantial criticism. In Japan as well, the notion of reliance interest is increasingly regarded as too vague and indeterminate to function as a damages standard. In conclusion, discussing reliance interest as a general standard for damages in cases of non-performance reflects a common-law mode of thinking, and there is no compelling reason for Korea, as a civil-law jurisdiction, to adopt it as a general compensatory standard.
Even if reliance interest need not be recognized as an independent measure of damages for breach of contract, incurred expenses may serve as a presumptive minimum measure of expectation interest where proof of full expectation damages is difficult. The 2025 draft amendment to the Civil Code includes provisions allowing recovery of such expenses, which is a useful response to the increasing complexity of valuing expectation and lost-profit damages. Fixed costs require particular consideration: since they are incurred regardless of performance, they should not, absent special circumstances, be deducted through set-off of benefits. Where fixed costs are claimed as incurred expenses due to difficulties in proving total profit, profitability assumptions must be limited to the portion of expectation interest causally connected to the specific breach—that is, the proportion of overall sales attributable to the contract in question. Finally, where both net profit and fixed costs are claimed, net profit should be calculated by applying the operating profit margin (reflecting fixed costs) to total revenue, while fixed costs should be limited to the portion that could have been recovered through performance of the breached contract. Only through such calculations can the result correspond to the original total expectation interest.