In recent years, gender conflict has become a prominent social divide in South Korea, shaping elections, policy debates, and daily interactions in schools, workplaces, and the media. Despite widespread support for gender equality, public discourse fre...
In recent years, gender conflict has become a prominent social divide in South Korea, shaping elections, policy debates, and daily interactions in schools, workplaces, and the media. Despite widespread support for gender equality, public discourse frequently centers on competing claims to victimhood, with each gender presenting itself as the more aggrieved party and minimizing the other’s experiences of discrimination. This phenomenon, known as competitive victimhood, serves as a psychological barrier to rational policy deliberation and intensifies hostility and derogation. While empirical research has primarily examined adults, especially those in their twenties, qualitative studies and teacher interviews indicate that competitive victimhood is also prevalent among adolescents. The spread of gender-conflict discourse in educational settings may foster resistance to gender-equality content and undermine the effectiveness of civic education.
Simultaneously, the information environment for middle and high school students has shifted toward online platforms, including smartphones, social networking services, and video platforms. In this context, gender issues are often presented through conflict framing and expressions of hatred or mockery, rather than as neutral information. Although normative support for gender equality remains high, repeated exposure to conflict frames and reverse discrimination narratives online may increase the tendency to dismiss or minimize the outgroup’s victimization, thereby reinforcing competitive victimhood. Consequently, adolescents’ competitive victimhood is likely to be more strongly associated with exposure to online gender-conflict content than with offline experiences. Despite this, few studies have empirically investigated the relationship between such exposure and competitive victimhood among adolescents, or systematically examined the moderating role of media literacy. This study addresses these gaps by analyzing the effect of exposure to online gender-conflict content on competitive victimhood among middle and high school students and assessing whether media literacy moderates this relationship.
To address these research questions, an online survey was conducted with a convenience sample of 439 middle and high school students from Seoul and the surrounding metropolitan area. After excluding inattentive responses, 410 cases were retained for analysis. Exposure to online gender-conflict content (independent variable) was measured using 10 items reflecting four recurring expression patterns: antagonistic portrayals of male–female confrontation, sensationalized and biased expressions, gender-based hatred and mockery, and overgeneralization of extremist community discourse as representative of society. Competitive victimhood (dependent variable) was assessed with a scale capturing both in-group victimhood claims and the devaluation of out-group victimization. Media literacy (moderator) was operationalized as the total score on a multi-dimensional scale comprising four subfactors: access, understanding and evaluation, expression and participation, and reflection and responsibility. Gender, power motivation, in-group identification, and collective narcissism were included as control variables. All items were rated on 4- or 5-point Likert scales. Descriptive statistics, correlation analyses, multiple regression, and hierarchical regression analyses were performed using SPSS 29.0.
The findings revealed several key results. First, exposure to online gender-conflict content had a significant positive effect on competitive victimhood, even after controlling for covariates. Frequent exposure to content emphasizing male–female antagonism, ridiculing or expressing hatred toward one gender, or exaggerating extremist community narratives as representative of broader society was associated with stronger perceptions of in-group victimization and a greater tendency to view out-group victim claims as overstated. Second, power motivation and collective narcissism were significant predictors of competitive victimhood. Students who believed their group should have greater influence and privileges and responded defensively to criticism reported higher levels of competitive victimhood. Male students also exhibited significantly higher competitive victimhood. In contrast, in-group identification was not significant after controlling for other variables, suggesting that competitive victimhood is more likely to arise from heightened group status demands and defensive attitudes than from simple group belonging. Third, media literacy demonstrated a significant negative main effect, indicating an association with lower competitive victimhood. However, the interaction between media literacy and exposure to online gender-conflict content was not significant and added little explanatory power. This suggests that while media literacy may reduce adolescents’ baseline competitive victimhood, it does not moderate the impact of exposure to online gender-conflict content.
Collectively, these findings suggest that even when adolescents endorse gender-equality norms, exposure to online gender-conflict content—particularly in conjunction with power motivation and collective narcissism—can intensify perceptions of in-group victimization and shift discussions toward hostility, mockery, and reverse-discrimination narratives. The results further indicate that while existing media literacy education may reduce competitive victimhood to some degree, it is limited in its ability to counteract the structural influence of gender-conflict content focused on competition and antagonism. Consequently, integrating gender-equality education, media education, and civic education is essential. A gender-sensitive media literacy curriculum should address how the composition of online content, platform algorithms, and comment or meme cultures stimulates victim competition. By empirically investigating the mechanisms underlying adolescents’ development of competitive victimhood in online gender-conflict environments, this study offers foundational evidence to inform educational strategies that promote constructive civic deliberation on gender equality.