In administrative and policy theory, the “bureaucrat” is a central actor. Street-level bureaucrats, in particular, are agents who exercise diverse forms of judgment and practice as they interpret and implement policies in real administrative setti...
In administrative and policy theory, the “bureaucrat” is a central actor. Street-level bureaucrats, in particular, are agents who exercise diverse forms of judgment and practice as they interpret and implement policies in real administrative settings after policy decisions have been made. While they are expected to comply with institutional and normative requirements, street-level bureaucrats also face complex experiences because they must respond proactively to shifting policy environments and the demands of frontline practice. Moreover, under the banner of “proactive administration”, contemporary administrative contexts increasingly require public officials to pursue the realization of the common good more actively. This reality suggests that actions or behaviors such as policy entrepreneurship should be understood not as confined to the status or roles of particular actors, but as a series of processes and experiences shaped within the context of policy implementation. Nevertheless, prior studies have largely focused on the decision-making stage or have conceptualized policy entrepreneurs primarily as high-level decision makers—such as senior bureaucrats, politicians, or presidents—thereby leaving insufficient empirical inquiry into how policy entrepreneurship may emerge at the street-level and how it is formed beyond the decision arena.
Accordingly, this study aims to develop a theoretically grounded explanation by closely examining and analyzing the patterns and lived experiences of policy entrepreneurship that appear at the level of street-level bureaucrats. To this end, the study formulates three overarching research questions as follows:
First, how does policy-entrepreneurial behavior manifest in street-level bureaucrats’ everyday practice of the public interest?
Second, under what conditions and contextual settings is street-level policy entrepreneurship formed and unfolded?
Third, how does street-level policy entrepreneurship reconfigure theories of policy entrepreneurs and street-level bureaucrats?
To address these questions, this study draws on the Multiple Streams Framework as a Non-decision perspective as a lens of theoretical sensitivity. The study recruited street-level bureaucrats who had been recognized as exemplary cases of proactive administration or who had engaged in comparable public-interest-oriented practices as participants. The study conducted in-depth interviews and analyzed the resulting data in accordance with the grounded theory procedures of Strauss and Corbin (1990). Through this approach, the study examines street-level bureaucrats’ practical actions and the processes through which they accumulate these experiences—dimensions that conventional decision-centered approaches do not sufficiently explain.
The analysis indicates that street-level policy entrepreneurship takes the form of an “experience of filling institutional or organizational gaps by performing public-interest responsibility”. Despite institutional limitations and organizational cynicism, participants redefined problems through public-interest-centered judgment and constructed their own strategies for resolution. Guided by a practical conscience oriented toward the public good, the paradox of administrative conscience, and individual courage, they acted beyond the mechanical compliance with existing norms. This core phenomenon was constituted within: (a) causal conditions combining recognition of recurrent threats to the public interest in the field as serious problems and public-interest and normative values with achievement- and relationship-oriented motivations; (b) a contextual condition of bureaucracy as constraint (structural, cultural, and environmental inertia); and (c) five intervening conditions—organization (hierarchy–relationships), institutions (uncertainty–responsibility), society (public opinion–relationships), the inner self (belief–morality), and emotion (burnout–recovery).
Within these conditions, street-level bureaucrats employed diverse patterns of action for the practice of the public interest through four action–interaction strategies. First, they generated grounds through logical and legal justification to transcend institutional constraints. Second, they redefined problems and sought solutions. Third, they built cooperative relationships grounded in trust. Fourth, they pursued balanced judgment between professional expertise and sensitivity to the public interest, deploying strategies oriented toward the realization of the public good.
As a result, such public-interest practice produced positive outcomes at the societal level, including institutional recognition and the diffusion of public-interest values. At the individual level, however, it entailed a dual outcome accompanied by psychological costs such as emotional fatigue, cynicism, and feelings of helplessness. Ultimately, the practice of the public interest was confirmed to have a paradoxical character in which social illumination and personal burnout coexist.
This study has the following theoretical implications. First, by shifting the theoretical focus from “decision” to “the process of implementation”, it reconceptualizes policy entrepreneurship as a phenomenon formed and expressed within policy implementation processes. In particular, the study complements the prevailing macro-level orientation of administrative and policy research, which has emphasized institutions and structures, by foregrounding the patterns and experiences of policy entrepreneurship that emerge among street-level bureaucrats during the post-decision implementation phase. In doing so, it relocates the locus of policy entrepreneurship from decision arenas to implementation sites. This suggests the need for a theoretical turn that views policy entrepreneurship not as a moment of decision, but as a process repeatedly constituted over time in implementation. Furthermore, whereas the Multiple Streams Framework has often been interpreted as a decision-centered model that emphasizes policy entrepreneurs when a policy window opens, this study accepts the Multiple Streams Framework as a Non-decision perspective and reinterprets it through a practice lens, thereby theorizing policy entrepreneurship as action performed in implementation—an additional theoretical contribution.
Second, moving beyond conceptions of policy entrepreneurship centered on status, authority, or visibility, this study reframes it as an experience-, practice-, and context-centered concept, shifting the question from “who does it” to “how it is experienced.” While conventional discussions have privileged highly visible actors with formal authority—such as senior bureaucrats, politicians, and presidents—this study does not reduce policy entrepreneurship to the acts of high-level decision makers or to institutional achievements. Instead, it explains how policy entrepreneurship is enacted and unfolds by analyzing the experiences and practices that street-level bureaucrats accumulate as they interpret and implement policy in administrative settings. This suggests that policy entrepreneurship can be translated from an issue of “status or role” to one of “experience”, and that it is an empirical concept capable of de-elitization.
Third, by positioning the experiences of individual street-level bureaucrats as the point of departure for theory generation, this study theorizes the process through which policies and institutions are reconstructed via micro-level experience. In particular, it highlights as key factors for explaining the operating mechanism of policy entrepreneurship and for building a substantive theory street-level bureaucrats’ perceptions and judgments regarding threats to the public interest, institutional voids, and organizational constraints encountered in administrative settings, as well as the practices that follow from these assessments. In doing so, the study establishes street-level bureaucrats’ micro-level experiences as the foundational unit for theorizing policy entrepreneurship and demonstrates that such experiences can serve as a basis for experience-grounded administrative or policy theory.
Fourth, by presenting empirical realities that contrast with the prototypical behaviors assumed in Lipsky’s theory of street-level bureaucracy, this study expands the explanatory scope of existing theory and suggests the possibility of reconsideration. In Lipsky’s account, street-level bureaucrats confront citizens directly under resource constraints and complex working conditions, and are depicted as agents of bureaucratic adaptation who minimize responsibility and manage workload by relying on strategies of simplification and routines. In contrast, this study presents street-level bureaucrats as practical agents who, even under similar constraints and pressures, redefine problems according to the public interest and expand responsibility. Rather than avoiding responsibility, the street-level bureaucrats analyzed here voluntarily assume public-interest responsibility in the gaps of institutions and organizations, and they go beyond existing norms in their practice while recognizing those norms’ limitations.
In particular, despite recognizing workload burdens and risks, they played an active role in the implementation process by redefining problems, constructing justificatory rationales, and seeking solution strategies through relationships and trust. This indicates that street-level bureaucrats are not merely actors who adapt to bureaucratic constraints, but can also be agents who judge and act based on the public interest even within such constraints. In this respect, the study is significant in presenting an additional empirical type of street-level bureaucrat who expands responsibility and practices the public good, beyond the typical patterns of “responsibility reduction”, “simplification”, and “routinization” that Lipsky’s theory has primarily captured. It may also function as a theoretical foundation for complementing and extending street-level bureaucracy theory in an experience-centered manner and for explaining active administration and public-interest practice. Moreover, it can contribute to reframing a recurrent question in discussions of bureaucratic pathologies and administrative reform—“Why do bureaucrats not act proactively?”—into “When, under what conditions, and how do bureaucrats act proactively?”
The findings also provide policy implications for the future direction of public administrative reform and debates on proactive administration. First, at the institutional level, policymakers and administrative leaders need to pursue structural reforms of bureaucracy and administrative organizations so that institutions can accommodate street-level bureaucrats’ public-interest judgments. The findings show that street-level bureaucrats detected problems and engaged in policy-entrepreneurial behavior based on public-interest-centered judgment amid institutional and organizational gaps. This suggests that, no matter how sophisticated laws and institutions become, they cannot predefine every situation involving the public interest; therefore, institutions must provide guarantees at the practice level to enable expanded discretion, more flexible legal interpretation, and adaptive application of procedures.
Second, at the organizational level, the public sector must improve organizational culture alongside efforts to promote street-level bureaucrats’ responsible practice. The findings suggest that supervisors’ trust and support, the feasibility of cooperation among colleagues, and psychological safety—such as tolerance for failure—can serve as key conditions that facilitate experiences of policy entrepreneurship. Conversely, organizational cultures marked by risk aversion or cynicism can neutralize the discretion that organizations grant to street-level bureaucrats. Thus, institutions can institutionalize proactive administration only when they not only confer discretion but also build organizational support systems and a learning-oriented culture that connects discretion to practice.
Third, at the individual level, institutions need to establish legitimate reward systems, ensure appropriate protective mechanisms, and support emotional recovery to secure the sustainability of diverse public-interest practices. The findings indicate that while street-level bureaucrats’ public-interest practice gained institutional recognition and registered as performance at the social level, it also generated emotional exhaustion and psychological burden at the individual level. This suggests that current systems of active administration still rely substantially on individual dedication and endurance. Accordingly, institutions need to pair substantive reward systems for public-interest practice with mechanisms that support emotional recovery and protective devices that distribute the burdens of failure and risk.
Although this study makes a meaningful contribution as a qualitative inquiry that employs grounded theory methods to analyze in depth the patterns and experiences of policy entrepreneurship at the street level and to derive a theoretical explanation, it has several limitations. First, because qualitative research allows researchers’ interpretations to directly shape the analytic process, the use of a single researcher for both data collection and analysis makes it difficult to fully rule out the possibility that interpretive subjectivity intervened relatively strongly. Although the study engaged in constant comparison and reflexive processes to balance participants’ perspectives with the researcher’s interpretations, future research should address this limitation by conducting joint analyses with multiple researchers or by undertaking intersubjective validation of analytic procedures. In addition, subsequent studies may extend the concepts and categories derived here by testing their empirical scope and generalizability through quantitative or mixed-methods research.
Second, the study faces limitations in case diversity because participating street-level bureaucrats represent policy types or functional domains that cluster relatively heavily in particular sectors. In particular, when the study applies Wilson’s (1985) typology of policy types grounded in cost–benefit distributions, it identifies relatively few cases that correspond to entrepreneurial politics or interest-group politics. Future research should broaden the range of cases by recruiting street-level bureaucrats across diverse policy types and domains, and it should continue to test the validity and explanatory power of policy entrepreneurship theory by integrating newly collected data with the existing analytic framework.
Third, the study also has a limitation because the researcher interpreted interview data from a comparatively neutral position and analyzed participants’ statements; as a result, the study may not capture with sufficient density—through an insider perspective—the contexts of street-level bureaucrats’ position and emotions. As noted above, the researcher adopted this approach to balance participants’ experiences with the researcher’s interpretations, but this choice also implies that alternative analytic results could emerge. Accordingly, future studies should analyze the same data from an insider perspective or add methods such as participant observation, thereby exploring policy entrepreneurship experiences at a different level and analyzing and interpreting their meanings.
Finally, because this study examines policy entrepreneurship experiences at the street level within the Korean administrative context, it may not sufficiently reflect diversity in different institutional or cultural contexts. Future research should therefore expand the scope beyond street-level bureaucrats to include central government officials, the judiciary, the legislature, and the private sector, and it should explore how different contexts constitute policy entrepreneurship experiences through cross-national comparative research or comparisons by institutional type. Ultimately, such follow-up studies may contribute to further deepening theoretical and practical discussions on public-interest practice and proactive administration.
keywords : street-level bureaucrats; policy entrepreneurship; public-interest practice; policy implementation; grounded theory