In South Korea, academic achievement at the high school level and access to higher education have long been regarded as critical pathways shaping individuals’ socioeconomic mobility. Within this context, students and families who perceive formal sch...
In South Korea, academic achievement at the high school level and access to higher education have long been regarded as critical pathways shaping individuals’ socioeconomic mobility. Within this context, students and families who perceive formal schooling alone as insufficient have increasingly relied on private tutoring as a supplementary educational resource, resulting in Korea’s exceptionally high rates of participation in and expenditure on private education. While private tutoring is often associated with short-term improvements in academic performance, concerns persist that it may undermine longer-term educational outcomes, such as emotional well-being, self-efficacy, self-concept, mental health, and early adaptation to college life, and may also contribute to widening socioeconomic disparities. These concerns suggest that reliance on private tutoring is not merely a matter of individual or household choice, but a structural phenomenon closely linked to the performance of the public education system, school organizational capacity, and the broader institutional environment.
Existing studies have tended to focus on short-term outputs such as test scores or college admission outcomes, or to treat private tutoring primarily as an object of policy debate surrounding educational inequality. Such approaches, however, are limited in explaining how dependence on private tutoring is formed and sustained within specific institutional and organizational contexts, and how it is connected to students’ long-term developmental trajectories and quality of life. Despite the fact that students’ and families’ reliance on external educational resources is closely intertwined with schools’ internal capacities for academic and emotional support—particularly under performance-oriented accountability pressures—systematic empirical analyses of this relationship remain relatively scarce. Moreover, few studies have applied perspectives from public administration, such as performance theory and resource dependence theory, to conceptualize private tutoring as an organizational performance issue and a strategy for resource acquisition.
Against this backdrop, this study reinterprets reliance on private tutoring as an outcome of the performance and organizational functioning of the public education system, and applies a multidimensional performance framework from public administration to analyze its effects in the educational domain. Educational outcomes are examined across four dimensions: short-term outputs (high school academic achievement), long-term outcomes (college grades, college and major satisfaction, sense of belonging, and job preparation behaviors), procedural and process-oriented values (class engagement, career maturity, self-concept, mental health, stress, and creativity), and equity (the relationship between socioeconomic status and educational outcomes). In addition, school-level process variables—encompassing instructional quality, classroom climate, teacher–student relationships, career guidance and counseling, extracurricular programs, and student participation—are conceptualized as organizational features of public schooling, and their implications for interpreting the relationship between private tutoring and student outcomes are examined.
The analysis draws on panel data from the Korean Education Longitudinal Study (KELS) conducted by the Korean Educational Development Institute. The dataset includes information on students’ individual and family backgrounds, academic achievement at the end of middle school, academic and affective outcomes during grades 10 through 12, repeated measures of private tutoring, school, and family-related factors, and postsecondary outcomes measured during college enrollment, including college grades, satisfaction with college and major, sense of belonging, long-term affective outcomes, and job preparation behaviors. Pearson correlation analyses are first employed to identify basic relational patterns among key variables. Panel regression analyses are then conducted for repeated high school measures to distinguish between within-student changes over time and between-student level differences. For college-level outcomes, hierarchical ordinary least squares (OLS) regression models are applied to assess incremental explanatory power and model efficiency as private tutoring variables are introduced stepwise. Model selection tests indicate that analyses of academic achievement are best interpreted using specifications that control for time-invariant individual characteristics, while affective outcomes require more cautious, indicator-specific interpretation.
The findings can be summarized as follows. First, at the correlational level, reliance on private tutoring is positively associated with high school grades and achievement in Korean, mathematics, and English, indicating that students with higher levels of private tutoring tend to exhibit higher observed achievement. In contrast, no consistent positive associations are found between private tutoring and affective outcomes; rather, some indicators reveal negative associations with emotional burden.
Second, panel analyses reveal a common temporal trend of deterioration in affective and psychological outcomes during high school: mental health, self-concept, and creativity decline over time, while stress increases, suggesting cumulative academic pressure and examination-related stress as students progress through grades.
Third, the effects of private tutoring on academic achievement differ markedly between between-student comparisons and within-student dynamics. While students with greater reliance on private tutoring exhibit higher average achievement levels in cross-sectional comparisons, within-student analyses show that increases in private tutoring over time are repeatedly associated with steeper declines in achievement. This pattern suggests that private tutoring may reflect characteristics of already high-achieving groups rather than functioning as a mechanism that sustainably elevates achievement trajectories.
Fourth, for affective outcomes, increases in private tutoring are more clearly linked to emotional costs: within the same student, rising reliance on private tutoring coincides with worsening mental health and increasing stress, indicating that private tutoring may operate more as a source of burden than as a protective factor for emotional well-being.
Fifth, hierarchical analyses of postsecondary outcomes show that the direct effects of private tutoring are generally weak or inconsistent. By contrast, school process factors experienced during high school account for substantial additional explanatory power in college satisfaction and sense of belonging, suggesting that instructional experiences, teacher relationships, and student support during high school exert residual effects that extend into college life. Models including interaction terms yield limited improvements in explanatory power and, in some cases, reduced model efficiency, indicating that the generalizability of private tutoring effects in the long term is limited.
Sixth, from an equity perspective, socioeconomic status exhibits relatively small direct effects on academic and affective outcomes, but is strongly associated with levels of private tutoring and the quality of school process experiences. Students from higher socioeconomic backgrounds are more likely to engage extensively in private tutoring and to be exposed to richer school and career-related experiences. Moreover, the strength of the association between private tutoring and achievement varies by socioeconomic status, indicating heterogeneity in how private tutoring operates across social groups.
Finally, school process factors play a moderating role in some cases: in academically supportive school environments characterized by strong teacher support and student participation, the linkage between private tutoring and achievement weakens, while in affective domains, school processes buffer the negative associations between private tutoring and mental health and stress.
Taken together, the results indicate that while reliance on private tutoring is partially associated with short-term achievement levels, it cannot be generalized as a factor that sustainably improves achievement trajectories within individuals. In affective and psychological domains, private tutoring is repeatedly linked to emotional costs. By contrast, foundational academic skills accumulated by the end of middle school, high-quality school process experiences during high school, and parental expectations and support emerge as structurally important predictors of academic achievement, affective development, college adaptation, satisfaction, and job preparation behaviors. These findings suggest that private tutoring should not be viewed solely as an individual strategy for short-term performance enhancement, but rather should be reconsidered within a structural framework in which the capacities of public schooling and family support condition both the operation and consequences of private tutoring. By reinterpreting private tutoring as a structural phenomenon and distinguishing between level differences and within-student change through longitudinal analysis, this study provides empirical evidence relevant to discussions on strengthening public education and mitigating educational inequality.