Through a comparative study of the shuiluhui (Water-and-Land Assembly) of Ming-dynasty China and the suryukjae (Water-and-Land Ritual) of Joseon-dynasty Korea, this paper explores how Buddhist rituals, ritual manuals, and related paintings developed i...
Through a comparative study of the shuiluhui (Water-and-Land Assembly) of Ming-dynasty China and the suryukjae (Water-and-Land Ritual) of Joseon-dynasty Korea, this paper explores how Buddhist rituals, ritual manuals, and related paintings developed into fundamentally different forms in response to the cultural resources of each society. Additionally, it compares shuiluhui-related Buddhist paintings with those connected to suryukjae. Though both rituals share the name “Water and Land” (水陸), they differ markedly in their ritual structures, modes of performance, and types of paintings involved. Accordingly, this study treats the shuiluhui in China and the suryukjae in Korea as distinct ritual traditions and examines them within their respective cultural and historical contexts.
The paper first discusses the establishment, historical development, and functions of the shuiluhui. It then explores the structure of the principal ritual manuals published from the Song through the Ming dynasties. Originating in the Indian ancestral spirit ceremony of śrāddha, shuiluhui were enriched upon their introduction to China through the gradual incorporation of elements drawn from Daoism and local folk beliefs. This paper demonstrates that the transformation of Chinese shuiluhui centered not on the organization of ritual space into upper and lower altars or into three altars, as argued by many scholars, but rather on the supplementation, expansion, and specification of the deities invited to the rituals.
Similarly, when the Chinese shuiluhui ritual was transmitted to Goryeo-dynasty Korea, the pantheon of ritual figures was revised to incorporate indigenous deities rather than directly imitating the Chinese arrangement. The ritual manual Cheonji myeongyang suryuk jaeui chanyo (天地冥陽水陸齋義纂要; hereafter, Jungryemun) was compiled, condensing the complex suryukjae procedures into a three-altar (三壇) structure and eventually exerting a profound influence on Joseon-era suryukjae, the associated Buddhist paintings, and the Buddhist ritual practices of the era more broadly.
The differences in the ritual manuals consulted in Ming China and Joseon Korea led to the production of unique types of Buddhist paintings in each country. In Ming China, murals depicting shuiluhui and a large body of shuiluhui ritual paintings in the form of hanging scrolls were produced based on the Tiandi mingyang shuilu yiwen (天地冥陽水陸儀文). Spanning the interiors of temple halls, these murals visually represented sacred and ordinary beings taking their seats in the ritual space. The hanging scroll versions depicted both sacred and secular figures and included additional details related to the preparatory procedures and food bestowal practice.
Shuiluhui ritual paintings from the Ming dynasty emphasize the totality of the depicted figures rather than prioritizing specific iconographies or individual scrolls. Since the shuiluhui rituals held during the Ming dynasty were theatrical in character involving installations, actors, and actresses, the paintings functioned as visual backdrops for an entertainment. Toward the end of the Ming dynasty, however, new ritual manuals emerged as authoritative sources for shuiluhui, resulting in a shift in the placement of shuiluhui ritual paintings from publicly accessible outdoor spaces to more private indoor settings.
In contrast, Buddhist paintings―functioning as liturgical paintings―were enshrined on three altars and other main ritual altars during suryukjae rituals held in the Joseon dynasty in accordance with the Jungryemun ritual manual. Owing to the structural flexibility of Joseon suryukjae, which allowed multiple rituals combined or separated, the paintings associated with suryukjae were intended to be used across a wide range of ritual contexts. Accordingly, in Joseon Korea, Buddhist paintings were created for the three primary altars and a wide range of other ritual altars, with each painting functioning as a modular unit dedicated to a specific ritual altar.
Suryukjae rituals during the Joseon dynasty were performed with more than simply the Buddhist paintings hung in the space. During the early Joseon period, these paintings were accompanied by ritual acts and various ritual objects, and indoor and outdoor spaces were connected to form a single ritual arena. The outdoor ritual spaces were further expanded in the late Joseon period. Buddhist paintings were enshrined at altars arranged according to the spatial layout of a dharma hall, a main gate, and a pavilion or belfry. Buddhist paintings related to suryukjae were created in a variety of sizes and formats, with each one enshrined at a separate altar rather than being presented as a continuous series.
Disparities in the composition, format, and function of these ritual paintings in China and Korea indicate that the Chinese shuiluhui and the Korean suryukjae fundamentally differed in structures and modes of performance. This divergence can be attributed not only to differences in the ritual manuals on which they were based, but also to the varying means of utilizing paintings depending on the ritual participants and the environments in which the rituals were conducted. Ming-dynasty shuiluhui paintings served as visual backdrop for the theatrical performance of the shuiluhui and were akin to symbolic ritual platforms. By contrast, Buddhist paintings associated with Joseon-dynasty suryukjae had to be adaptable for use in other rituals organized around the three-altar system, resulting in clearly defined ritual roles and specific altars for their enshrinement. In Ming China, a ritual altar was constituted only through the collective presence of multiple paintings, whereas in Joseon Korea, even a single Buddhist painting could define a site of ritual performance and function as a practical altar for a suryukjae.
Rather than comparing shuiluhui and suryukjae under identical conditions simply because they share a literal meaning of “water and land,” these rituals should be understood within the framework of regionality, shaped by the distinct social and cultural contexts of the two countries. The paintings associated with the Ming dynasty’s shuiluhui and those related to the Joseon dynasty’s suryukjae can thus be seen as visual embodiments of the unique value systems and the religious and cultural contexts that developed within each society over time.