This article examines the organization and historical transformation of the various branches (je-eop, 諸業) incorporated into the Goryeo government service examination system. Focusing in particular on the operation of the medical and divination bra...
This article examines the organization and historical transformation of the various branches (je-eop, 諸業) incorporated into the Goryeo government service examination system. Focusing in particular on the operation of the medical and divination branches in the context of state governance, it aims to elucidate the historical significance of the Goryeo examination system as a whole and to clarify the background to the formation of the specialist examinations (japgwa, 雜科) in the early Joseon period.
The Goryeo Government Service Examination System comprised a range of branches, inchuding Literary branch(Jesur-eop, 製述業), Classics branch (Myeonggyeong-eop, 明經業), Medical branch (Ui-eop, 醫業), Divination branch(Bok-eop, 卜業), Geomancy branch(Jiri-eop, 地理業), Legal branch (Myeongbeop-eop, 明法業), Calligraphy branch(Myeongseo-eop, 明書業), arithmetic branch(Myeongsan-eop, 明算業), branch in the Three Rites(Samnye-eop, 三禮業), branch in the Three Commentaries on the Spring and Autumn Annals (Samjeon-eop, 三傳業). The preface of the Monograph on Recruitment(Seongeo-ji, 選擧志) in the Goryeosa(高麗史) classifies these braches into two major categories – Literary and Classics – and a residual category termed “jap-eop(雜業)”, a designation that denotes specialized or miscellaneous fields. This framework has long shaped modern understandings of the structure of the Goryeo Government Service examination system. Departing from this dichotomous classification, however, this article adopts the concept of “je-eop(諸業)” as an inclusive analytical term encompassing all branches incorporated into the Goryeo government service examination system, based on two interrelated considerations.
First, although hierarchical distinctions existed among the examination branches, all branches shared an essential institutional function in that successful candidates were granted eligibility for appointment to official positions. This characteristic distinguishes the Goryeo system from the Joseon government service examination system, in which the civil, military, and specialist examinations were clearly differentiated in both function and status, respectively selecting civil officials, military officials, and technical specialists.
Second, the term je-eop was not a concept confined solely to the government service examination system. The notion of ‘eop(業)’ extended beyond the meaning of an examination subject to encompass the active performance of specialized occupational duties and their voluntary transmission across generations. The designation of examination branches as eop, rather than ‘gwa(科)’, thus presupposed a substantive connection to actual professional practice. Nevertheless, not all branches were directly related to the practical demands of state administration. With the exception of the litarary and classics branches, only the medical and divination branches maintained tangible functional relevance to governance.
From this perspective, the article addresses two central issues. The first concerns how the system of je-eop was initially established within the Goryeo government service examination system and how it evolved over time. The second examines how the medical and divination branches were operated in practice within the framework of state administration and how their modes of operation changed. Through this analysis the study ultimately clarifies the process by which the je-eop-based structure of the Goryeo government service examination system was dismantled and reorganized into the tripartite system of civil, military, and specialist examinations in the early Joseon period, thereby elucidating the foundations for the establishment of the Joseon specialist examinations.
The government service examination system was introduced in the ninth year of King Gwangjong(光宗)’s reign(958), with four initial branches: literary, classics, medicine, and divination that corresponded to areas of expertise deemed necessary for state administration at the time. During King Seongjong(成宗)’s reign, additional branches were established in accordance with policies promoting the adoption of Chinese institutions, resulting in a substantial quantitative expansion of the government service examination system. From the reigns of King Munjong(文宗) to King Injong(仁宗), the composition of examination branches underwent considerable change. New branches were added either in response to growing administrative demands or to meet specific political exigencies. A representative example is the establishment of the military studies branch during the reign of King Yejong(睿宗), which was prompted by heightened military tensions arising from shifts in the East Asian international order.
In the late Goryeo period, various attempts were undertaken to reform perceived dysfunctions within the examination system. Amid initiatives under King Chungseon(忠宣王) and King Gongmin(恭愍王), branches other than literary were increasingly criticized independently of examination reform efforts, as they became associated with the issue of local functionaries (hyangri, 鄕吏) using examination success as a means of evading hereditary local service obligations. Labeled as “jab-eop” or “jabgwa”, these fields were subjected to calls for abolition or reduction. Nevertheless, none of the examination branches were ultimately abolished, and the je-eop-based structure of the Goryeo government service examination system persisted until the collapse of the dynasty.
Fundamental change to the government service examination system was effected only through the reforms implemented following the enthronement of King Chang(昌王). Under reforms led by Neo-Confucian literati(Sinheung Yushin, 新興儒臣), the literary branch was reorganized into the civil examination(mungwa, 文科), while the establishment of the Ten Schools system(sip-hak, 十學) signaled a new policy direction that sought to cultivate specialized officers necessary for state administration through state-sponsored education rather than through the examination system alone.
Following the founding of the Joseon dynasty, King Taejo(太祖) proclaimed the principle of concurrently administering the civil and military examinations through his enthronement edict. At the same time, however, the Ipgwan bori-beop(入官補吏法), the Law on Entry into Official Service contained provisions that implied the potential operation of additional examination branches beyond the civil and military examinations, including those in interpretation, medicine, and yin-yang studies.
In the first government service examination held after the establishment of the dynasty, only the civil examination was conducted. Although the specific procedures remain unclear, sources confirm that by the first year of King Jeongjong(定宗)’s reign(1399), four examination branches—interpretation(Yeokgwa, 譯科), medicine(Uigwa, 醫科), yin-yang studies(Eumyanggwa, 陰陽科), and law(Yeoulgwa, 律科)-were administered under the collective category of the specialist examinations(jabgwa, 雜科). With the implementation of the military examination in the second year of King Taejong(太宗)’s reign (1402), the tripartite examination system of civil, military and specialist examinations was formally established in Joseon.
The four branches established as specialist examinations shared a defining characteristic in that, within the early Joseon official system, government offices charged with specialized professional functions were instituted, and the official positions responsible for carrying out those duties were incorporated as ranked offices(pumgwan, 品官). Among these fields, medicine and divination had continuously performed important functions in state governance since the early Goryeo period. Following the founding of the Joseon dynasty, the Goryeo administrative system in these areas was inherited intact, with Jeonuigam(典醫監) and Seoungwan(書雲觀) being established accordingly.
In the case of law, although legal officials existed during the Goryeo period as subordinate local offices and were utilized only in a limited capacity, the establishment of the Joseon dynasty brought about the incorporation of Yulhak(律學) into the central administrative system. This bureau was soon reorganized as Saryulwon(司律院). Finally, in the field of interpretation, the growing importance of foreign-language competence and translation in the context of diplomatic relations with the Mongol Empire during the late Goryeo period led to the sporadic establishment of related offices. Through subsequent processes of consolidation and institutional reorganization, these developments culminated in the establishment of Sayeogwon(司譯院) in the early Joseon period.
Taken together, the range of specialized government offices established in early Joseon corresponded precisely to the four specialist examination branches—interpretation, medicine, yin-yang studies, and law. This correspondence suggests that the establishment of the specialist examinations was closely linked to the creation of specialized offices and the incorporation of their associated positions into the ranked official hierarchy.
Nevertheless, because the technical examinations were operated in parallel with the Ten Schools system, they functioned less as mechanisms for the initial recruitment of officials than as examinations that conferred promotion or institutional privileges upon individuals who had already entered official service through prior talent evaluation(chijae, 取才) processes. Moreover, unlike the civil and military examinations, which selected officials for the general bureaucratic corps, the specialist examinations served the limited purpose of recruiting personnel in specific professional fields. As a result, the specialist examinations became institutionalized as a system of lower status relative to the civil and military examinations within the Joseon government service examination hierarchy.