Introduction : Global maternal mortality has declined since the establishment of the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) in 2000, yet more than 90% of maternal deaths still occur in low- and middle-income countries as of 2023. Under the Sustainable D...
Introduction : Global maternal mortality has declined since the establishment of the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) in 2000, yet more than 90% of maternal deaths still occur in low- and middle-income countries as of 2023. Under the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), the global community aims to reduce the maternal mortality ratio (MMR) to fewer than 70 deaths per 100,000 live births by 2030, but Nigeria remains far from this target, reporting an MMR of 993. Because most maternal deaths are preventable through continuous use of maternal health services across the antenatal, delivery, and postnatal stages of the Continuum of Care (CoC), improving service utilization remains central to reducing maternal mortality in Nigeria. In a context shaped by patriarchal social norms and health system constraints, strengthening women’s empowerment has emerged as a critical public health agenda in Nigeria. Women’s decision-making autonomy, defined as participation in decisions related to healthcare, household expenditures, and mobility, represents a form of agency that may influence service utilization. However, evidence on how autonomy operates across service types and over time in Nigeria remains limited. This study examines how the association between women’s decision-making autonomy and maternal health service utilization varies across survey periods and service types.
Methods : This study used data from three waves of the Nigeria Demographic and Health Survey (NDHS) conducted in 2013, 2018, and 2023–24. The analytic sample was restricted to married or cohabiting women who had a live birth within two years preceding each survey. Women’s household decision-making autonomy was measured using a composite index based on three domains: healthcare, major household purchases, and visits to family or relatives. The index ranged from 0 to 3 and was categorized as low (0), moderate (1–2), and high (3). Maternal health service utilization was assessed for antenatal care (ANC), skilled birth attendance (SBA), and early postnatal care (Early PNC). ANC utilization was examined separately as having at least four contacts (ANC4+) and at least eight contacts (ANC8+), in accordance with WHO recommendations. Bivariate logistic regression analyses were conducted, followed by multivariable logistic regression models adjusting for age, parity, education, household wealth, media exposure, place of residence, region, and health insurance coverage. Temporal variation was assessed using pooled models with interaction terms between survey period and women’s autonomy. Additional analyses examined effect modification by household wealth, and sensitivity analyses were conducted using the healthcare decision-making domain alone. All analyses accounted for the DHS complex survey design and were performed using Stata version 18.0.
Results : The analysis showed that women’s decision-making autonomy improved overall across survey periods. In multivariable logistic regression models adjusting for sociodemographic factors, the association between women’s autonomy and maternal health service utilization varied by service type. Higher autonomy was consistently associated with ANC4+ and SBA across all survey periods, whereas its association with ANC8+ and Early PNC varied by survey period. Tests of effect modification by survey period indicated that, for ANC4+, the association between autonomy level and maternal health service utilization remained stable over time. In contrast, for ANC8+, SBA, and Early PNC, predicted probability–based analyses showed that differences in utilization between autonomy levels gradually narrowed over time. Household wealth, education level, health insurance coverage, and media exposure were generally positively associated with maternal health service utilization. By contrast, effect modification between women’s autonomy and household wealth was inconsistent. The disparities in maternal health service utilization between northern and southern regions were consistently observed across all survey periods.
Discussion : This study compared data from the 2013, 2018, and 2023–24 NDHS using a consistent analytical framework and found that the association between women’s household decision-making autonomy and maternal health service utilization varied by service type and over time. While autonomy showed relatively consistent positive associations with ANC4+ and SBA, its association was less stable for services requiring repeated use or timely access, such as ANC8+ and Early PNC. These findings indicate that women’s decision-making autonomy can function as an important form of agency, but it may not translate into service use uniformly across all stages of care. For high-intensity and time-sensitive services, individual agency alone appeared insufficient to sustain continuous utilization, underscoring the importance of health system structural conditions and service delivery capacity. In addition, the more consistent associations observed for education level, household wealth, and media exposure suggest that maternal health outcomes depend not only on individual agency but also on broader socioeconomic conditions. Overall, these findings contribute to a more nuanced understanding of the autonomy–utilization relationship across service types and provide relevant evidence for policy and research discussions in similar low- and middle-income country contexts.