This study introduces a computationally efficient numerical framework designed to predict the downwash and outwash flow field of electric vertical takeoff and landing (eVTOL) aircraft by coupling the lattice Boltzmann method (LBM) with the actuator li...
This study introduces a computationally efficient numerical framework designed to predict the downwash and outwash flow field of electric vertical takeoff and landing (eVTOL) aircraft by coupling the lattice Boltzmann method (LBM) with the actuator line method (ALM). The proposed framework is validated against existing single-rotor and multi-rotor in ground effect experiments and equivalent Reynolds-averaged Navier-Stokes based high-order numerical simulations. During this validation process, the framework demonstrates its capability to reproduce key ground effect phenomena while reducing computational costs by a factor of up to 250 times that of conventional computational fluid dynamics approaches.
Following the validation process, the proposed framework is applied to four mission-sized eVTOL configurations sized for equivalent mission-payloads to examine the effects of aircraft geometry and rotor disk loading on the downwash and outwash hazards. While the single-rotor configuration induces a nearly axisymmetric flow structure, multi-rotor configurations generate highly directional, multi-peak outwash footprints with peak velocity magnitudes that locally exceed standard safety thresholds. Across all simulated cases, instantaneous velocities frequently and significantly exceed their time-averaged values, highlighting the importance of unsteady wake physics in evaluating aerodynamic hazards.
These results demonstrate that current vertiport regulations, which primarily rely on simple aircraft geometric scaling derived from conventional helicopters, fail to adequately account for the configuration-specific, directional, and highly unsteady flow hazards unique to eVTOL aircraft. Ultimately, the proposed LBM-ALM framework provides a physically consistent and computationally efficient foundation for establishing new vertiport safety guidelines that accurately reflect the complex aerodynamic profiles of eVTOL aircraft.