Hydrogen serves as both a primary energy source and an energy carrier for storage and delivery. The high energy density of hydrogen (143 MJ kg-1) compared to fossil fuels makes it suitable for applications that demand low weight and large energy capac...
Hydrogen serves as both a primary energy source and an energy carrier for storage and delivery. The high energy density of hydrogen (143 MJ kg-1) compared to fossil fuels makes it suitable for applications that demand low weight and large energy capacity. In addition, hydrogen generates only water when reacting with oxygen, without emitting CO2. These properties make hydrogen an essential component in achieving carbon reduction, especially in heavy transport and high-energy industrial sectors.
Water electrolysis enables hydrogen production without CO2 emission by splitting water into hydrogen and oxygen. Especially green hydrogen, which is produced by electricity from renewable power sources such as solar, wind, and hydropower enables to eliminate CO2 emission during production. Among various electrolysis systems, proton exchange membrane water electrolysis (PEMWE) is one of the large-scale commercialized systems. However, PEMWE relies on precious metal catalysts for both the oxygen and hydrogen evolution reactions, making the membrane electrode assembly (MEA) responsible for roughly 76% of the total stack cost. The OER electrode alone accounts for about 65% of this cost because the OER, a four-electron process, limits the overall reaction rate and requires further improvement in catalyst activity and durability. Accordingly, the current system primarily relies on Ir-based catalysts for the OER, which largely increase the total cost. In addition, even if the Ir loading were reduced to several tens of micrograms per W, the potential capacity would still be limited to about 30 GW per year, considering the constrained Ir supply. Therefore, reducing Ir usage and developing alternative catalyst materials are key steps toward achieving cost-effective, large-scale PEMWE commercialization.
This dissertation investigates an operational strategy to enhance the durability of Ru-based electrodes through two main approaches: (1) applying a current swing operation to effectively remove accumulated gas bubbles under constant high-current conditions, and (2) examining how bubble behavior influences catalyst stability and degradation during OER.
Chapter 1 describes the global escalation of environmental issues, particularly the rise in atmospheric temperature caused by greenhouse gas emissions. As a countermeasure, the production of green hydrogen has gained increasing attention. Among various hydrogen production methods, PEMWE has been recognized as one of the most practical and large-scale commercialized systems. It offers several advantages, including high-pressure and high-current operation, high hydrogen purity, and compatibility with renewable energy sources. However, to further enhance the commercial viability of PEMWE, the development of durable and efficient anode electrodes is essential. This chapter also discusses the current limitations of PEMWE technology, emphasizing the high cost and limited supply of Ir.
Chapter 2 focuses on the need to develop Ru-based OER electrodes to overcome the limitations of Ir-dependent PEMWE systems. Ru-based electrodes have been regarded as a promising alternative due to their lower cost and suitable catalytic properties. However, the instability of Ru under oxidative conditions caused by over-oxidation and dissolution remains a major issue for long-term operation. This chapter presents an approach to improve the durability of Ru-based electrodes through operation-based strategies, such as bubble-removal methods, to reduce catalyst degradation during high-current operation.
In Chapter 3, a PEMWE anode with a Ru interlayer between the Ti-PTL and IrOx catalyst was prepared to evaluate the stability of Ru under practical operating conditions. The study introduces a current swing (CS) operation, which alternates between high current operation (HCO) for hydrogen generation and low current operation (LCO) for bubble removal. This operational strategy effectively suppressed Ru dissolution and reduced the degradation rate of the Ru and Ir-based PEMWE cell by 67% (from 950 to 314 μV h-1) during high current operation at 2.0 A cm-2. The results demonstrate that bubble-induced over-oxidation of Ru plays a critical role in its dissolution behavior and that controlling bubble accumulation through CS operation can significantly enhance the durability of Ru-based electrodes.
Chapter 4 investigates the relationship between bubble behavior, local current distribution, and catalyst degradation during the OER. Bubbles adhering to the electrode surface block current flow, trap heat, and create localized regions of elevated temperature and current density, which accelerate metal dissolution and structural instability. Previous studies have suggested these effects theoretically or indirectly, but direct experimental evidence of local current variation and its impact on degradation has remained limited due to the lack of spatially resolved measurement techniques. To address this limitation, Chapter 4 employs scanning electrochemical microscopy (SECM) in the substrate generation–tip collection (SG-TC) mode to quantitatively map local OER activity and current distribution influenced by oxygen bubbles. Using Pt@Ir (high corrosion resistance) and Ru@Ir (low corrosion resistance) electrodes as model systems, SECM directly visualized how bubble attachment and detachment cause current redistribution and localized degradation. The results revealed that bubble-induced non-uniformity in current density significantly affects catalyst and interlayer stability, regardless of material composition. Notably, the regions adjacent to bubbles, where current density is locally elevated, were identified as critical zones for degradation.
In summary, these studies demonstrate how gas bubble behavior directly influences the degradation of Ru based-OER electrodes in PEMWE. By introducing a current swing (CS) operation and employing SECM, the research clarifies the role of bubble-induced over-oxidation and non-uniform current distribution in accelerating catalyst and interlayer dissolution. Notably, the relevance of CS operation would be further enhanced when coupled with intermittently supplied renewable energy sources such as solar energy.
The approaches and findings presented in this dissertation can provide useful insights into improving the durability and performance of Ru-based and other gas-evolving electrodes in PEMWE systems, and may contribute to future strategies for developing stable and efficient green hydrogen electrochemical devices.