Animals use diverse defensive colouration strategies, notably camouflage and aposematism. Light conditions affect the efficacy of each strategy: bright light enhances aposematism, whereas dim light makes camouflage more effective. Consequently, animal...
Animals use diverse defensive colouration strategies, notably camouflage and aposematism. Light conditions affect the efficacy of each strategy: bright light enhances aposematism, whereas dim light makes camouflage more effective. Consequently, animals should adjust when and how they move in response to changes in light conditions across the day-night cycle. Caterpillars are an ideal system for studying interactions between defensive colouration and diel activity because their various colouration is primarily defensive and their activity is dominated by feeding. Here, we tested whether defensive colouration is associated with feeding behaviour and frass production, which is closely linked to feeding, in macroheteroceran caterpillars. We classified species as conspicuous or cryptic, and further subdivided cryptic species into twig- and leaf-resembling forms. Using 24 hours video recordings of 36 caterpillars representing 20 species (9 conspicuous, 11 cryptic), we tested whether species with different colouration differ in feeding intensity (how long they feed), feeding-bout structure (how often they feed), and diel allocation of feeding and frass production (day vs night). We found clear evidence that feeding-bout structure differs between colouration strategies: conspicuous species showed more feeding bouts and shorter intervals between bouts than cryptic species, whereas bout duration did not differ. Feeding intensity and diel allocation did not differ significantly among colouration categories, although conspicuous species tended to feed longer overall and cryptic, especially twig-resembling species, tended to feed more at night. Our results suggest that defensive colouration is linked to the temporal structure of feeding and to a trade-off between crypsis and feeding activity in caterpillars, potentially driving behavioural differences among species with different defensive colouration strategies.
Countershading is a widespread colouration pattern in animals, characterised by darker pigmentation on body surfaces exposed to illumination and lighter pigmentation on those in shadow. The optimal degree of countershading is shaped by light levels, leading to the prediction that countershading intensity should correlate with the light environment a species inhabits. We tested this hypothesis in pinnipeds (Carnivora, Pinnipedia), a group that combines diverse variation in the degree of countershading, body size, and diving depth, within aquatic environments where light predictably decreases with depth. We predicted that species foraging in well-lit shallow water would exhibit stronger countershading than those that dive deeper. We also examined the influence of thermal environments, predicting that species in colder climates would display darker dorsal pelage to maximise solar heat gain, resulting in stronger countershading. Body weight was additionally considered as a potential covariate due to its links with thermoregulation and dive capacity. Contrary to our expectations, we found no evidence that diving depth or thermal environments influenced the evolution of countershading. The only statistically significant association was a negative correlation between male body weight and the degree of countershading. Although all extant pinniped species were included, statistical power was low for most relationships possibly due to low number of extant species, preventing us from conclusively rejecting our predictions. We discuss possible explanations for this uncertainty and suggest future directions for research.