The Torghud, a branch of the Mongol Oyirad people, migrated westward to the Volga River region in the early seventeenth century. Establishing themselves as a major power in western Central Eurasia centered on the Volga region, the Torghud saw their in...
The Torghud, a branch of the Mongol Oyirad people, migrated westward to the Volga River region in the early seventeenth century. Establishing themselves as a major power in western Central Eurasia centered on the Volga region, the Torghud saw their influence weaken in the eighteenth century, eventually becoming the subjects of the Russian Empire. Their history in the region effectively concluded when the majority of the population migrated eastward in 1771. Focusing on the early eighteenth century, regarded as a transitional period in Torghud history, this thesis seeks to re-examine the prevailing narrative that the Torghud decline began immediately following the death of Ayuki (r. 1669–1724), the monarch considered to have led the Torghud's golden age. In doing so, this study reconstructs the changes within the Torghud polity, centering on the reign of Čering Dondub (1724–1735), and analyzes the timing and process of the Torghud's political transition.
Although the Torghud had acknowledged the suzerainty of the neighboring Russian Empire since the early seventeenth century, they managed their diplomacy and internal affairs independently until Ayuki's era. At that time, Russian suzerainty was merely a nominal expression; the actual bilateral relationship was closer to an alliance than a lord-vassal relationship. Under these circumstances, the Torghud sent envoys to the Crimean Khanate and the Ottoman Empire, Russia's potential enemies, and occasionally cooperated with them militarily. Internally, the appointment, succession, and securing of authority for the supreme ruler were all conducted according to traditional Mongol-Oyirad customs, and domestic administration remained largely free from Russian interference.
The situation appeared to change following Ayuki's death in 1724 and the accession of Čering Dondub, his son and designated successor. Čering Dondub has traditionally been depicted as a weak and incompetent figure, and his reign defined as an era of instability and division. While it is true that, as a nomadic ruler, Čering Dondub did not possess overwhelming power or exercise centralized authority, he was able to maintain his position as supreme ruler based on his lineage, his father's designation, and recognition by major Torghud factions. In fact, from 1724 to 1731, under Čering Dondub's rule, the Torghud continued to engage in diplomacy with surrounding powers and govern internally, maintaining a relatively stable phase similar to the previous period.
However, a significant shift occurred in 1731 when the Qing dynasty approached the Torghud. Alarmed by this move, Russia appointed Čering Dondub as khan. As Russia intervened at an unprecedented level, major Torghud figures, led by Čering Dondub's nephew, Donduk Ombu, rebelled, and the conflict escalated into armed clashes. As internal strife persisted, Čering Dondub was militarily defeated by Donduk Ombu and lost his influence. Under the pretext of resolving the conflict, Russia began to control the Torghud's internal and external activities one by one. Donduk Ombu, who had led the hostility against Russia, ultimately compromised with the empire. With Russian approval, he ascended to the position of supreme ruler in 1735, replacing Čering Dondub, and was formally invested as khan two years later. By this time, all of Torghud's channels for foreign negotiation required Russian approval, and no forces remained to resist Russia's powerful control and intervention.
This study demonstrates that the history of the Torghud in the early eighteenth century, centered on Čering Dondub's reign, did not unfold in a linear decline but was a process driven by a complex interplay of internal and external factors surrounding the Torghud. In particular, focusing on the period of Čering Dondub, this thesis aims to explain not merely that the existing order persisted for a few more years until 1731, but rather why the status quo could be maintained without major upheaval until 1731 and why rapid changes occurred thereafter. Furthermore, this thesis presents a case study for understanding the broader political transition in which the nomadic world of early modern Central Eurasia was gradually absorbed into sedentary empires.