This paper aims to elucidate the role played by gasa literature in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries by examining Hyangchon Minwon Gasa, which comprehensively address popular grievances (minwon) arising from contradictions within the ruling syst...
This paper aims to elucidate the role played by gasa literature in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries by examining Hyangchon Minwon Gasa, which comprehensively address popular grievances (minwon) arising from contradictions within the ruling system of local rural society. In particular, this study redefines a group of works that have previously been categorized as “reality-critical gasa” in the history of gasa scholarship as Hyangchon Minwon Gasa. This redefinition seeks to delineate the scope of the genre in accordance with the actual characteristics of extant works and to move beyond earlier research perspectives that focused primarily on establishing historical significance through the notion of “criticism.” Instead, the study emphasizes an examination of how individual works perceive social reality and how such perceptions are articulated through the gasa form.
This study begins by focusing on the fact that Hyangchon Minwon Gasa were produced within specific regional contexts, examining their modes of composition and reception from a regional perspective. Section 1 of Chapter II empirically reviews the extant textual variants of individual works and identifies a pattern in which the sphere of reception gradually expanded beyond traditional gasa readership communities. Section 2 of Chapter II further specifies regional differences in geographical, economic, and cultural conditions through perspectives drawn from social history and the history of gasa. As Hyangchon Minwon Gasa were shaped by the concrete realities of rural society, variations emerge in both the issues foregrounded and the ways in which such perceptions are articulated. Based on the findings of Chapter II, this study establishes an analytical framework that categorizes Hyangchon Minwon Gasa into three regional groups—Honam, the Northwestern region, and Yeongnam—according to their regional characteristics.
Chapter III examines the problematic situations represented in Hyangchon Minwon Gasa by region and analyzes the ways in which these situations are articulated through the gasa form. Section 1 of Chapter III focuses on Imgye-tan and Hapgangjeong-ga, works produced in the Honam region. Honam was traditionally perceived as a “land of abundance,” where fertile conditions were believed to ensure a prosperous livelihood. However, both works critically address the negligence and exploitation of provincial inspectors and local magistrates who failed to respond to severe damage caused by natural disasters.
In Imgye-tan, the speaker, as a survivor of famine, identifies himself with the rural populace. Through the use of diverse rhetorical devices, the poem vividly reconstructs the disaster-stricken reality in which even human dignity has been stripped away, while simultaneously fostering a sense of solidarity by appealing to collective endurance with the hope of eventual recovery. In Hapgangjeong-ga, the speaker serves as a witness to the Jeolla Provincial Governor’s extravagant pleasure cruise. By contrasting the local populace’s expectations of the governor’s巡行 (sunhaeng, inspection tour) with the disappointing reality, the work advances toward emphasizing the moral responsibilities and conduct befitting the stated purpose of such official inspections.
Section 2 of Chapter III analyzes Gapmin-ga and Hyangsan-byeolgok, works produced in the Northwestern region. As a strategic military frontier, the Northwest bore an intensified burden of military service and was commonly perceived as a region “distant” from the political center. Both works depict figures who, in an effort to evade excessive corvée labor and military obligations, are reduced to the status of itinerants, thereby foregrounding issues of regional discrimination.
Gapmin-ga presents, in a narrative mode, the repeated efforts and frustrations of the Gapsan people to resolve their labor obligations. Through this process, the dialogue is structured in such a way that the superficial understanding of social reality held by a saengwon (licentiate) gradually collapses. By concluding with the migration to Bukcheong, the work contrasts the conditions of the two regions and calls for the rectification of regional imbalances in the distribution of military service.
Hyangsan-byeolgok is structured around directly addressing an implied audience, shifting its tone to offer admonitions appropriate to the addressee. While expressing the belief that a strong and prosperous state must be built in preparation for the eventual recovery of the Central Plains, the work points out the paradoxical weakening of actual military capability. To resolve this contradiction, it calls for the realization of a civil service examination system that selects talent fairly, without discrimination between the capital and the provinces (gyeonghyang).
Section 3 of Chapter III analyzes Geochang-ga and Mintan-ga, works produced in the Yeongnam region. Yeongnam was widely regarded as a “land of propriety” (yeyang), a region that placed strong emphasis on ritual propriety and learning. In both works, layered patterns of exploitation by local magistrates and clerks are depicted, with particularly sharp criticism directed toward the clerical stratum (iseo).
Geochang-ga offers a comprehensive portrayal of the abuses prevalent in Geochang by enumerating various categories of taxation through which illegal surcharges (garyeom) were imposed. The work constructs an ideological rationale as the basis for criticizing these abuses and seeks to elicit readers’ concurrence with its moral logic.
Mintan-ga captures the problematic reality of Jinju by juxtaposing rampant exploitation by corrupt officials (ganri) with failed efforts to rectify such abuses. In a context where injustices could not be corrected through lawful means, the work advances the legitimacy of resistance and urges the collective mobilization of the rural populace.
Based on the foregoing discussions, Chapter IV examines the significance of the ways in which Hyangchon Minwon Gasa responded to the problematic realities of late Joseon rural society. Hyangchon Minwon Gasa appropriate the ideology of minbon (people-centered governance) to construct a critical discourse on social reality, while presenting the benevolent rule (injeong) of the king as an alternative solution. This orientation reflects concrete expectations and demands directed toward the monarch as the authority capable of ending maladministration and the suffering of the people. Rather than constituting an epistemological limitation stemming from a failure to propose a new order or logic for transforming the ruling system, this feature can be reinterpreted as an ideological foundation shared by both the authors and the audiences of Hyangchon Minwon Gasa, enabling their resonance and mutual understanding. This ideological foundation functioned as a driving force for constructing a sense of rural communal consciousness that transcended social strata. Through the mediation of their shared experiences of suffering, the creators and audiences of gasa were able to form bonds of solidarity and to articulate an optimistic will oriented toward the future. Consequently, Hyangchon Minwon Gasa give rise to a new poetic subject that goes beyond the role of a lyrical self merely responsible for experiential narration, instead seeking to achieve practical efficacy by inducing changes in the perceptions or actions of its audience. The poetic subject established in Hyangchon Minwon Gasa thus operates as a focal point of emotional solidarity that actively responds to social realities at the level of the rural community, and it is this practical orientation that ultimately leads into the development of enlightenment gasa.