A robust heading controller is essential for the safe and efficient operation of Maritime Autonomous Surface Ships under environmental disturbances and uncertainties. This study systematically compares three heading controllers–proportional-derivati...
A robust heading controller is essential for the safe and efficient operation of Maritime Autonomous Surface Ships under environmental disturbances and uncertainties. This study systematically compares three heading controllers–proportional-derivative (PD) control, disturbance observer-based control (DOBC), and sliding mode control (SMC)– using a three-stage framework comprising Lyapunov-based stability analysis, Maneuvering Modeling Group (MMG) model simulations, and full-scale sea trials on the 26.5 m testbed ship Haeyang Nuri. The Lyapunov analysis establishes asymptotic or uniformly ultimately bounded stability depending on the presence of disturbances. Using the MMG model of Haeyang Nuri, control parameters were tuned through numerical simulations in calm water to ensure similar transient response performance across all controllers. Subsequently, heading tracking performance and rudder usage metrics were quantitatively compared under wind and current disturbance conditions. To assess the performance and practical effectiveness of the controllers in real maritime environments, a total of 13 sea trials were conducted: 1 manual-based waypoint-tracking test, 6 waypoint-tracking tests, and 6 time-varying command tests. The waypoint-tracking trials aimed to verify stability under relatively low-frequency heading-command changes, while the time-varying command trials complemented this analysis by assessing dynamic response characteristics under high-frequency and large-angle commands. The sea-trial results showed that the PD controller is effective as a baseline due to its simple implementation; however, residual heading errors increased under intensifying disturbances. The DOBC controller achieved the best rudder-usage efficiency by minimizing the mean square of the rudder angle and saturation time through disturbance estimation and compensation. Notably, unlike the simulation results, the DOBC controller recorded the smallest total rudder variation in the sea trials, indicating effective disturbance rejection under persistent disturbances in real-world environments. The SMC controller achieved the highest heading- tracking precision by minimizing the time-averaged absolute heading error, although it was accompanied by relatively high rudder usage. This study quantifies the trade-off between tracking accuracy and rudder usage, providing engineering guidelines for controller selection based on disturbance intensity and mission characteristics. Beyond the limitations of conventional theoretical and simulation-oriented research, this study holds significant practical value by directly comparing and validating all three controllers on the same full-scale ship in actual maritime environments.