In recent decades, the iron and steel industry has faced increasing pressure to decarbonize due to its significant contribution to global energy consumption and greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. Accordingly, the transition from conventional carbon-inten...
In recent decades, the iron and steel industry has faced increasing pressure to decarbonize due to its significant contribution to global energy consumption and greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. Accordingly, the transition from conventional carbon-intensive processes to eco-friendly low-carbon technologies has become imperative under international climate agreements. Direct reduced iron (DRI) production based on hydrogen direct reduction is a promising technology that utilizes hydrogen as a reducing agent instead of coal, theoretically emitting only water as a by-product. This study proposes a rigorous design and optimization of a hydrogen-based DRI production process utilizing multi-stage fluidized bed reactors (FBRs). A process simulation model was developed using Aspen Plus V14.0, incorporating a kinetic-based reaction model. To ensure the reliability of the simulation, the kinetic parameters were calibrated against industrial experimental data. The validation results demonstrated excellent agreement, with a coefficient of determination (R2) exceeding 0.998 for reactor profiles and a relative error of less than 0.1% for final product properties compared to the experimental values. Based on the verified model, a comprehensive techno-economic and environmental assessment was conducted. The techno-economic assessment results indicated that the unit production cost (UPC) for the green hydrogen scenario was 636.83 $/tDRI, which is approximately 40% higher than that of the gray hydrogen scenario. The cost distribution analysis revealed that raw material costs account for 68% of the total annual cost (TAC), with the cost of green hydrogen alone being the dominant contributor. Conversely, the environmental assessment confirmed the superior sustainability of the process. When coupled with renewable energy-based electricity, the total CO2 equivalent (CO2eq) emissions were reduced by 89% compared to the natural gas-based electricity scenario. Furthermore, the impact of carbon pricing was evaluated, identifying a remarkably low breakeven price of 1.44 $/tCO2 to achieve cost parity with the natural gas-based electricity scenario within the proposed process. To bridge the gap between economic feasibility and environmental sustainability, a multi-objective optimization (MOO) was performed using the Pareto optimality method. The optimization identified optimal operating conditions for the feed hydrogen flow rate and gas recycling ratio. As a result, the optimized process achieved an annual cost savings of 413 k$/yr and an absolute CO2 reduction of 25.8 tonne/yr while maintaining a reduction degree (RD) of over 90%. In conclusion, this study demonstrates that lowering hydrogen production cost and optimizing process operation, alongside effective carbon pricing policies, represent the key potentials for commercializing the hydrogen-based steelmaking process. Such improvements are expected to make substantial contributions to transitioning the steel industry toward a sustainable green steel future.