This study investigated the comparative ecotoxicity of Lemna minor and Spirodela polyrhiza exposed to diuron, triclosan, and pyrazoxyfen. Among the evaluated toxicity endpoints, frond area yielded the most sensitive responses, resulting in 96 h EC₅...
This study investigated the comparative ecotoxicity of Lemna minor and Spirodela polyrhiza exposed to diuron, triclosan, and pyrazoxyfen. Among the evaluated toxicity endpoints, frond area yielded the most sensitive responses, resulting in 96 h EC₅₀ values of 2.642 mg/L and 2.360 mg/L for diuron, 0.592 mg/L and 0.689 mg/L for triclosan, and 2.395 mg/L and 0.044 mg/L for pyrazoxyfen in L. minor and S. polyrhiza, respectively. Environmental fate was evaluated by comparing residual concentrations under dark, light, and plant-mediated conditions to characterize degradation behavior. As expected from their physicochemical properties, removal efficiency differed markedly among chemicals, and plant-mediated contributions followed the order triclosan > pyrazoxyfen > diuron. Targeted GC–MS/MS metabolomics detected 185 and 174 metabolites in L. minor and S. polyrhiza, respectively, and revealed metabolic responses aligned with each compound’s mode of action. Diuron induced a conserved carbon- limited state; triclosan redirected carbon flow toward cytosolic and redox- associated pathways; and pyrazoxyfen perturbed aromatic amino acid metabolism and altered carbon allocation in line with HPPD inhibition. Although response amplitudes differed, both species exhibited these core chemical- specific signatures, with L. minor displaying greater overall metabolic disruption. Collectively, the integration of toxicity, fate, and metabolomic data highlights the utility of metabolomics for linking molecular responses to physiological stress while providing mechanistic insights into species-specific sensitivity and phytoremediation potential in aquatic duckweeds.