Carbapenem-resistant Enterobacterales (CRE) are an important group of multidrug-resistant bacteria that are resistant to several classes of antibiotics, including carbapenems, which are clinically used as last-resort antibiotics. Their persistence in ...
Carbapenem-resistant Enterobacterales (CRE) are an important group of multidrug-resistant bacteria that are resistant to several classes of antibiotics, including carbapenems, which are clinically used as last-resort antibiotics. Their persistence in the environment is recognized as a major driver of antimicrobial resistance dissemination. Accordingly, wastewater-based surveillance of resistant bacteria has been implemented in various countries and is being explored as a complementary approach to conventional clinical monitoring. In this study, carbapenem-resistant Citrobacter freundii (C. freundii) was isolated from municipal wastewater in Seoul, and its distribution patterns and genetic and phenotypic resistance characteristics were investigated to better understand the environmental presence and transmission potential of CRE. Between July 2023 and May 2024, 64 wastewater samples were collected and analyzed, resulting in the isolation of 41 carbapenem-resistant C. freundii strains. All isolates carried at least one carbapenemase gene, such as blaKPC, blaNDM, or blaVIM, with four strains harboring two or more of these genes. Most isolates possessed additional antimicrobial resistance genes, including those encoding broad-spectrum β-lactamases, and exhibited high-level resistance to multiple antibiotics. Molecular epidemiological analysis revealed genetically diverse lineages, indicating the coexistence of heterogeneous resistant strains within the wastewater. Plasmid profiling identified the IncX3 type, known as a major vector for carbapenemase gene dissemination, in 30 strains, most of which successfully transferred the plasmid via conjugation, demonstrating the potential for horizontal gene transfer in the wastewater environment. This study experimentally characterized the genetic features and transmission potential of wastewater-derived carbapenem-resistant C. freundii, providing foundational data on the environmental dissemination of AMR bacteria.