Weeds are major factors that reduce crop productivity, and the use of effective herbicides is essential for maintaining stable agricultural production. Among herbicides, inhibitors of 4-hydroxyphenylpyruvate dioxygenase (HPPD) constitute an important ...
Weeds are major factors that reduce crop productivity, and the use of effective herbicides is essential for maintaining stable agricultural production. Among herbicides, inhibitors of 4-hydroxyphenylpyruvate dioxygenase (HPPD) constitute an important class with broad-spectrum herbicidal activity. Inhibition of HPPD suppresses carotenoid biosynthesis in plants, leading to chloroplast bleaching. However, concerns regarding resistance development caused by repeated applications of synthetic herbicides and their environmental persistence have increased the demand for safer, biodegradable herbicides derived from natural products. In particular, allelopathic plant metabolites with β- triketone structures, such as leptospermone, have been highlighted as natural HPPD inhibitors. In this study, natural β-triketone compounds (leptospermone, grandiflorone, and 4F-grandiflorone) and the synthetic HPPD inhibitor mesotrione were applied to lettuce (Lactuca sativa) to compare physiological and metabolic responses under pre- and post-emergence treatment conditions. Visual phenotype analysis showed that all four compounds induced bleaching, with stronger bleaching observed in pre-emergence treatments, consistent with previous reports indicating that early seedling stages are highly sensitive to HPPD inhibition. In the duckweed (Spirodela polyrhiza) assay, co-treatment with homogentisate (HGA) resulted in bleaching recovery only in mesotrione-treated plants, whereas the three natural β-triketones did not exhibit such recovery. This suggests that mesotrione may act at a specific step within the HPPD pathway that directly responds to HGA supplementation, while natural triketones may induce additional stress responses or metabolic disturbances beyond HPPD inhibition. In the GC-MS/MS-based metabolomic analysis, the affected pathways and the metabolites selected as biomarkers differed depending on the treatment compound. In the pre-emergence treatment, glyoxylate and dicarboxylate metabolism was significantly influenced by leptospermone and mesotrione, while metabolites such as sedoheptulose in the Calvin cycle were affected in the grandiflorone and 4F-grandiflorone treatments. In the post-emergence treatment as well, certain pathways, including pantothenate and CoA biosynthesis, exhibited distinct increasing or decreasing trends in metabolites depending on the compound applied. Overall, although the four β-triketone compounds commonly induced bleaching, their underlying metabolic and physiological mechanisms were not identical. Notably, the natural compounds and the synthetic herbicide mesotrione showed distinct metabolite-level responses despite structural similarity. This study provides metabolomic evidence for understanding the modes of action of natural triketone compounds and offers insights for the development of natural-product-based herbicides.