This study aimed to classify executive function profiles of early adolescents and to examine the longitudinal effects of personal, parental, and school adjustment factors on each profile. The research questions were as follows: (1) What latent profile...
This study aimed to classify executive function profiles of early adolescents and to examine the longitudinal effects of personal, parental, and school adjustment factors on each profile. The research questions were as follows: (1) What latent profiles of executive function are identified among second-year middle school students (15th wave), and what are the characteristics of each type? In addition, how do the profiles differ in demographic variables (gender, parental education) and psychosocial variables (depression, peer attachment, parental attachment, academic involvement, peer relationships at school, teacher relationships, and school life)? (2) Which personal, parental, and school adjustment factors measured in the first year of middle school (14th wave) predict the executive function profiles one year later? Personal variables included gender, depression, and peer attachment; parental variables included education, depression, and parental attachment; and school adjustment variables included academic involvement, peer relationships at school, teacher relationships, and school life.
Data were drawn from the Panel Study on Korean Children (PSKC), using the 14th (2021) and 15th (2022) waves. Since the same cohort was repeatedly assessed over time following a temporal sequence, the data were analyzed with a longitudinal design. The final sample consisted of 1,038 adolescents, and descriptive statistics, correlation analysis, latent profile analysis (LPA), chi-square tests, one-way ANOVA, and multinomial logistic regression were conducted using SPSS 30.0 and Mplus 8.8.
The results were as follows. First, four latent profiles of executive function were identified: adaptive type, moderate difficulty type, behavioral regulation difficulty type, and emotional–cognitive difficulty type. The adaptive type demonstrated the most stable self-regulatory functioning, whereas the moderate difficulty type showed a moderate level of self-regulation difficulties. The behavioral regulation difficulty type was characterized as a high-risk group with prominent impulsivity, emotional instability, and externalizing behaviors. In contrast, the emotional–cognitive difficulty type exhibited relatively low levels of overt problem behaviors but the highest levels of emotional and cognitive difficulties, representing an internalizing risk group.
Second, gender was the only variable that showed significant differences in profile distribution: boys were more likely to belong to the behavioral regulation difficulty and moderate difficulty types, whereas girls were more likely to belong to the adaptive type and the emotional–cognitive difficulty type. Mean comparisons of psychosocial variables revealed significant group differences in adolescent depression and all subdomains of school adjustment, including academic involvement, peer relationships, teacher relationships, and school life. In particular, the emotional–cognitive difficulty and behavioral regulation difficulty types showed the highest levels of depression and the lowest levels of school adjustment, whereas the adaptive type exhibited the most stable overall characteristics.
Third, analyses examining whether variables measured in the first year of middle school predicted executive function profiles one year later indicated that gender and adolescent depression were significant personal predictors, while academic involvement and peer relationships functioned as protective school adjustment factors. Boys were significantly more likely than girls to be classified into difficulty profiles (moderate difficulty and behavioral regulation difficulty types), confirming gender as a key predictor of executive function development. Among parental factors, paternal education partially and significantly predicted classification into difficulty profiles. Although paternal attachment did not consistently predict all profile memberships, it significantly differentiated the moderate difficulty type from the behavioral regulation difficulty type, suggesting that fathers’ supportive relationships may serve as selective early predictors that contribute to adolescents’ self-regulatory and behavioral control foundations. Contrary to expectations, parental depression did not significantly distinguish profile membership, suggesting that during adolescence, peer and school experiences and autonomy-related factors may exert a more direct influence on executive function than parental emotional characteristics.
Overall, executive function in early adolescence was confirmed to be a complex developmental system shaped not by a single cognitive ability but by the integration of emotional stability, school adjustment experiences, and social support contexts. Adolescent depression and gender (being male) were identified as key risk factors associated with executive function difficulty profiles, whereas academic involvement and peer relationships served as protective factors. By structuring executive function into latent profiles and identifying their longitudinal predictors, this study highlights the importance of emotional, academic, and relational interventions to support self-regulation in early adolescence and provides foundational evidence for executive function–focused educational and psychological practices.