비구니 승가의 성립과 전개에 관한 연구 - 초기불교와 부파불교의 승가를 중심으로 - = A Study on the Establishment and Development of the Bhikkhunī Saṅgha - Focusing on the Saṅgha in Early Buddhism and Sectarian Buddhism -

다국어 초록 (Multilingual Abstract)

This study examines the background and developmental process of the bhikkhunī saṅgha from Early Buddhism through the Sectarian Buddhist period, through a critical analysis of the Vinaya piṭaka and early sūtras. Although the establishment of a female monastic community holds significant importance in Buddhist history, previous research has been concentrated on specific topics such as the Eight Garudhammas(aṭṭha garudhammā, 八敬法), the Therīgāthā(長老尼偈), and individual sectarian Vinaya piṭakas. This research aims to comprehensively reconstruct the history of the bhikkhunī saṅgha by providing a diachronic account from earlier female renunciant traditions through the Sectarian Buddhist period and systematically comparing six sectarian Vinaya piṭakas.
The research methodology combines philological approaches with comparative-historical analysis. Using the P āli Vinaya and Therīgāthā, along with five Chinese Vinayas (『四分律』, 『五分律』, 『十誦律』, 『摩訶僧祇律』, 『根本說一切有部毘奈耶』) as primary sources, this study analyzes textual strata and identifies differences in sectarian transmissions. Furthermore, by quantifying the stability hierarchy of disciplinary rules and typologizing the characteristics of sectarian Vinayas, this research establishes a foundation for objective comparison.
Chapter 1 presents the research objectives and methodology, and reviews previous scholarship. It identifies the fragmented nature of existing research centered on individual topics and proposes the necessity of diachronic and comparative-historical approaches.
Chapter 2 examines female renunciant traditions prior to the establishment of the bhikkhunī saṅgha. From the Vedic through the Upaniṣadic periods, female thinkers such as Gārgī and Maitreyī were active, yet institutional renunciation for women was not permitted within the Brahmanical system. During the Buddha’s time, Jainism allowed limited female renunciation but denied the possibility of complete liberation for women. Against this background, the Buddha's permission for female renunciation is confirmed to have been a progressive decision for its time.
Chapter 3 analyzes the formation process of the bhikkhunī saṅgha. The sequence of events—Mahāpajāpati Gotamī’s request for ordination, the Buddha’s initial refusal, Mahāpajāpati Gotamī’s repeated request, Ānanda’s mediation, and final permission through the establishment of the Eight Garudhammas(aṭṭha garudhammā)— demonstrates that female renunciation was not a simple approval but the product of complex negotiations concerning monastic order, social reputation, and community sustainability. The Eight Garudhammas and the dual ordination system(二部僧受戒制度) provided an institutional framework for the bhikkhunī saṅgha while simultaneously codifying structural dependence on the bhikkhu saṅgha. This study analyzes this as the “institutionalization of gender hierarchy” from a gender perspective, while also considering that this was the practical condition that enabled official recognition of a female religious community in 6th-5th century BCE Indian society.
Chapter 4 analyzed the practice and achievements of 73 bhikkhunīs recorded in the Therīgāthā. Prominent bhikkhunīs such as Khemā, Uppalavaṇṇā, Paṭācārā, and Dhammadinnā demonstrated excellence in various domains including wisdom, supernatural powers, moral discipline, and Dharma teaching. Their narratives reflect the egalitarian consciousness of the early Saṅgha that practice was possible regardless of caste, social class, or age. However, the Therīgāthā should be understood not as a historical record but rather as a text that reveals how the early Buddhist community remembered and represented female practitioners.
Chapter 5 systematically compares the bhikkhunī precepts across six sectarian Vinayas. While the eight pārājika rules(波羅夷法) and seven adhikaraṇasamatha rules(滅諍法) show complete agreement across all schools, demonstrating the highest level of stability, the pācittiya rules(波逸提法, 141∼210 precepts) and sekhiya rules(式叉迦 羅尼法, 64∼107 precepts) show significant variation. These differences result from active restructuring according to the sociocultural environments and monastic management practices each regional saṅgha faced. Sectarian Vinayas can be classified into four types: “conservative-concise,” “balanced-standard,” “precise-expanded,” and “detailed-augmented.”
The main conclusions of this study are as follows. First, the bhikkhunī saṅgha formed an interdependent network with the bhikkhu saṅgha, laity, and state power within the dynamics of institutionalization. Second, female practitioners achieved awakening through diverse backgrounds and practices, demonstrating the egalitarian spirit of Early Buddhism. Third, bhikkhunī precepts were transmitted differently across schools, reflecting the active restructuring processes of regional saṅghas.
This research makes scholarly contributions by providing a diachronic synthesis of bhikkhunī saṅgha history, integrating multilingual sources, and introducing a relational analytical framework. It also demonstrates that research on the early Buddhist bhikkhunī saṅgha can provide historical reference points for contemporary Buddhist discussions on gender equality. The duality of the possibility of spiritual attainment and institutional constraints reflects the complex reality of Early Buddhism, and contemporary saṅghas should inherit the contemplative spirit of early Buddhism while critically reflecting on historical limitations and seeking monastic communities suited to the contemporary era.

목차 (Table of Contents)

• 제1장 서론 ············································································································ 1
• 제1절 연구의 목적 ·························································································· 1
• 제2절 선행연구 검토 ······················································································ 4
• 제3절 연구의 범위 및 방법 ······································································· 10
• 제2장 비구니 승가의 기원과 형성 ······························································ 15
• 제1절 비구니 승가 이전의 여성 수행자 ················································ 15
• 　　1. 쑨다리(Sundarī)와 찐짜 마나비까(Ciñcā māṇavikā) ·············· 15
• 　　2. 자이나교의 여성 출가자 ··································································· 18
• 3. 우빠니샤드의 여성 철학자 ································································ 21
• 제2절 비구니 승가의 성립 배경 ······························································· 25
• 1. 마하빠자빠띠 고따미(Mahāpajāpati Gotamī)의 출가 발원 ··· 30
• 2. 붓다의 여성 출가 거절과 그 배경 ················································· 33
• 3. 마하빠자빠띠 고따미의 재청 ··························································· 37
• 4. 아난다(Ānanda)의 중재 ·································································· 41
• 제3절 팔경법(八敬法)과 비구니 승가의 형성 ······································ 58
• 1. 팔경법(八敬法)의 제정 ······································································ 58
• 1) 팔경법의 정의와 해석 ····································································· 58
• 2) 팔경법의 조항 분석 ·········································································· 60
• 2. 비구니 승가의 성립 ············································································ 69
• 1) 성립 시기 ···························································································· 70
• 2) 초기 구성원 및 형태 ········································································ 72
• 3. 마하빠자빠띠 고따미의 수계 ··························································· 82
• 1) 팔경법 수용을 표현한 비유 ··························································· 82
• 2) 여성 출가에 대한 부정적 시각의 극복 ······································ 85
• 3) 최초의 비구니 구족계(具足戒) 성립 ··········································· 93
• 4. 팔경법의 현대적 평가 ········································································ 95
• 1) 팔경법의 여성차별에 대한 비판 ··················································· 96
• 2) 팔경법의 보호 규범적 해석 ··························································· 97
• 제3장 비구니 승가의 전개와 발전 ···························································· 101
• 제1절 초기불교 시대의 비구니 활동 ···················································· 101
• 1. 비구니의 출가 분석 ·········································································· 102
• 2. 비구니의 일상생활 ············································································ 112
• 1) 의생활(衣生活) ················································································ 113
• 2) 식생활(食生活) ················································································ 117
• 3) 주생활(住生活) ················································································ 130
• 3. 비구니 아라한 ···················································································· 144
• 1) 비구니 아라한의 경전적 근거 ····················································· 144
• 2) 비구니의 수행 체계 ······································································· 145
• 3) 아라한과(阿羅漢果)의 내용과 표현 ··········································· 149
• 4) 대표적 비구니 제자의 특징 ························································· 153
• 5) 13인의 비구니 아라한 ··································································· 156
• 6) 소결: 비구니 아라한과 그 의의 ················································· 178
• 제2절 비구 승가와의 관계 ······································································· 179
• 1. 율장에서 본 비구니와 비구의 지위 ············································· 179
• 1) 비구니 승가의 위상 ······································································· 179
• 2) 팔경법과 비구니 위계 ··································································· 181
• 3) 비구니 차별 규정 분석 ································································· 188
• 4) 소결: 이부 승가 관계와 율의 유연성 ······································· 199
• 2. 이부승 수계제도의 기능과 의의 ··················································· 201
• 1) 이부승 수계(二部僧受戒)의 절차 ············································· 201
• 2) 정당성과 규범성 ············································································ 206
• 3) 식차마나 제도의 구조적 특징 ··················································· 209
• 제3절 재가자(在家者)와의 관계 ····························································· 209
• 1. 재가 불자의 신앙과 출가자와의 상호 관계 ······························ 209
• 2. 재가자의 지계(持戒)와 승가 지원 ··············································· 210
• 3. 비구니 승가의 법적 보호와 출가 규제 ······································· 213
• 4. 재가자의 역할과 계율 제정의 인연(因緣) ································· 217
• 1) 초기 승가의 청정성과 계율 제정 유예 ·································· 217
• 2) 비구니 규범 정비와 재가자의 종교적 견제 ·························· 218
• 5. 재가자의 수행 침해와 비구니 승가의 제재 ······························ 220
• 6. 수행 공간의 규율과 외부에 대한 개방성 ·································· 223
• 제4장 부파불교 시대의 비구니 승가 ························································ 227
• 제1절 비구니의 지위 변화 ······································································· 227
• 1. 비구니 지위 하락 ·············································································· 227
• 1) 결집에서의 비구니 배제 ····························································· 227
• 2) 아난다에 대한 비난 ····································································· 229
• 3) 비구니 아라한의 지위 ································································· 230
• 2. 사회적 배경과 여성 차별 ································································ 233
• 3. 부파율장의 체계화와 그 특징 ······················································· 236
• 제2절 부파별 비구니 의식주 규정 ························································ 239
• 1. 생활원칙: 사의법(四依法)과 삼의법(三依法) ···························· 240
• 2. 의생활(衣生活) ··················································································· 244
• 1) 의복 규정 ························································································ 244
• 2) 의복 관리 ························································································ 256
• 3. 식생활(食生活) ··················································································· 265
• 1) 걸식(乞食)과 시식(施食) ···························································· 266
• 2) 식사 규정 ························································································ 269
• 4. 주생활(住生活) ··················································································· 282
• 1) 주처(住處)의 개념 ········································································ 283
• 2) 정사(精舍) 규정 ············································································ 287
• 3) 정사 관리 ························································································ 294
• 5. 소결: 부파별 비교와 종합 ······························································ 295
• 제3절 테라와다(Theravāda) 비구니 승가의 성립과 전개 ············· 301
• 1. 스리랑카 비구니 승가의 성립 배경 ············································· 304
• 2. 비구니 승가의 전성기 ······································································ 306
• 3. 테라와다 비구니 승가의 쇠퇴와 단절 ········································· 308
• 1) 쇠퇴 과정 ························································································ 308
• 2) 비구니 전통 단절의 원인과 영향 ············································ 310
• 제5장 결론 ········································································································ 314
• 참고문헌 ············································································································ 324
• ABSTRACT ···································································································· 345