Modern society faces various unethical situations, including war, collective violence, structural oppression, and the distortion of individual conscience. Such conditions undermine human dignity and the common good, making the realization of justice i...
Modern society faces various unethical situations, including war, collective violence, structural oppression, and the distortion of individual conscience. Such conditions undermine human dignity and the common good, making the realization of justice increasingly difficult. This study begins with the fundamental question, “On what grounds and according to what criteria can resistance to unethical actions be rendered possible and justified?” and aims to explore the theological and ethical foundations of resistance from the perspective of Christian moral theology. In particular, it analyzes the relationship between human freedom, conscience, responsibility, and resistance by focusing on the thought of Dietrich Bonhoeffer, who integrated theological reflection with practical resistance during the era of radical evil in World War II. Chapter 1 examines the structure and moral character of human acts based on Thomas Aquinas’s theory of human action. Human beings determine their actions through knowledge and free will, and the object, circumstances, and intention of an act constitute its morality. By exploring the moral law, natural law, synderesis, and the meaning of conscience, this chapter presents objective criteria that guide the human person to discern good from evil and to choose morally right actions. Chapter 2 investigates Bonhoeffer’s life and theological background, analyzing how his understanding of conscience, responsibility, anthropology, and union with Christ becomes the basis for resistance. For Bonhoeffer, resistance is not merely a political act but the action of those united with Christ, a response to the conscience’s call not to tolerate or cooperate with evil. His concept of “vicarious representative action” and his ethical framework of “following Christ within concrete reality” present resistance as a fundamentally faith-based practice. Chapter 3 compares Bonhoeffer’s theory of resistance with the Catholic moral tradition. By analyzing the prophetic tradition of Scripture, the teachings of the Church Fathers, the documents of the Second Vatican Council, the Catechism of the Catholic Church, and Pope John XXIII’s encyclical Pacem in Terris, this chapter examines how Catholic moral theology grounds resistance in the protection of human dignity and the realization of the common good. It confirms that Christians cannot remain silent or neutral in the face of unethical situations; rather, they are called to discern and enact God’s will through conscience, thereby safeguarding human dignity and promoting the common good. In conclusion, resistance in unethical situations is not a matter of mere choice but a theological obligation grounded in the human capacities of conscience, freedom, and responsibility. While Bonhoeffer’s thought illuminates the existential and faith-oriented meaning of resistance, it also presents limitations—particularly the lack of clear external criteria regarding the use of violence. Thus, a complementary engagement with Catholic moral theology enriches the understanding of resistance. This study contributes a theological framework for discerning and practicing faithful resistance amid the diverse unethical realities of the contemporary world.