H9N2 and H5N1 avian influenza viruses (AIVs) are among the most significant subtypes impacting the poultry industry, posing significant economic and public health threats. The low pathogenic H9N2 subtype is endemic in poultry farms across many countri...
H9N2 and H5N1 avian influenza viruses (AIVs) are among the most significant subtypes impacting the poultry industry, posing significant economic and public health threats. The low pathogenic H9N2 subtype is endemic in poultry farms across many countries, leading to poor production performance and increased vulnerability to secondary infections, which result in substantial economic losses. Additionally, H9N2 serves as a key 'gene donor' in the emergence of novel influenza A virus through genetic reassortment, contributing to human infecting subtypes such as H5Nx and H7N9. On the other hand, H5N1 is a highly pathogenic virus that causes fatal infections in poultry worldwide, necessitating stringent national-level control measures due to its major economic impact. Both H9N2 and H5N1 not only cause enormous economic losses to poultry industry but also pose zoonotic risks. In particular, the globally circulating H5N1 clade 2.3.4.4b has recently shown increased infections in mammals and animal-to-human transmission, raising further concerns related to its zoonotic potential.
To control the spread of AIVs, various strategies—such as biosecurity, disinfection, stamping-out, and vaccination—have been actively employed. However, despite these comprehensive measures, it remains a challenge to prevent the continual introduction of the virus from wild birds or contaminated environments, as well as its subsequent spread among poultry. Many countries currently employed vaccination policy against H9N2 viruses and some also target H5N1 subtype. Although these vaccines offer partial protection, they fail to induce sterilizing immunity sufficient to completely prevent viral shedding. Moreover, their narrow antigenic coverage necessitates periodic updates to effectively match newly emerging viral variants.
To mitigate the economic burden on the poultry industry and reduce zoonotic risks posed by H9N2 and H5N1, my study focused on development of high-yield vaccine strains capable of eliciting strong and broad immune responses through genetic engineering and reassortment using reverse genetics technology, along with optimization of viral inactivation methods. First, instead of relying on traditional serial egg-passaging, genetically modified H9N2 vaccine strains were designed to enhance replication efficiency and immunogenicity. Second, through reverse genetics and optimized viral inactivation techniques were used to develop an intranasal inactivated vaccine targeting the globally circulating H5N1 clade 2.3.4.4b, aiming to elicit mucosal immune responses comparable to those induced by live vaccines. Third, a chimeric H5N2 vaccine strain was generated to provide simultaneous (concurrent) protection against both H5N1 and H9N2 viruses.
To develop an improved H9N2 vaccine strain with enhanced replication efficiency in embryonated chicken eggs and immunogenicity compared to existing vaccine strain, viral replication efficiency and antigenic structure were optimized using reverse genetics technology. Specifically, the PB2 gene was replaced with that of a previously developed low-pathogenic H9N2 virus (01310 strain); an 18-amino-acid deletion in the NA stalk which acquired through egg adaptation was restored; and the N-glycan at HA position 158 was removed. The resulting vaccine strain showed approximately a 10-fold increase in viral yield compared to the wild-type virus without requiring extensive egg passaging. In chickens, this strain induced an approximately 10-fold enhancement in heterologous NA-specific immune responses compared to wild-type-based vaccines. Interestingly, restoring the NA stalk length alone did not sufficiently boost NA immunogenicity, but additional removal of the HA N-glycan at position 158 markedly increased NA-specific responses. This enhancement contributed to improved cross-neutralization against both Y280 and North American lineage H9N2 viruses.
To address the threat posed by clade clade 2.3.4.4b H5N1, a high-yield vaccine strain for intranasal administration was developed using reverse genetics, incorporating the 01310-derived PB2 gene to enhance virus replication. The vaccine strain showed approximately a 10-fold higher yield than the conventional PR8 PB2-based vaccine. The vaccine strain was then inactivated with formaldehyde (F/A), β-propiolactone (BPL), or binary ethylenimine (BEI), and evaluated in mice following intranasal immunization. Among inactivation methods, BEI-inactivation elicited the strongest immune responses, including increased mucosal IgA levels and T-cell activation, offering superior cross-protective efficacy against antigenically distinct H5N1 clades and even heterosubtypic H1N1 viruses.
Finally, a dual protective 'H5N2' chimeric vaccine strain against H5N1 and H9N2 was developed using reverse genetics by combining the H5 gene from H5N1 with the N2 gene from H9N2. To enhance immunogenicity, the N-glycan in the HA2 stem region was removed, and the PR8-derived M2e was replaced with that of an avian-derived variant lacking N-glycans, unmasking critical epitopes. The optimized H5N2 strain showed > 10-fold higher yield in embryonated chicken eggs compared to the H5N1 vaccine strain. The vaccine strain was then inactivated using either F/A or BEI, and its immunogenicity was assessed in chickens. Notably, the combination of N-glycan removal and BEI inactivation significantly boosted both H5- and N2-specific antibody responses, providing robust cross-neutralizing immunity against both H5N1 and H9N2 subtypes.
In conclusion, this study addresses key limitations of existing vaccine strategies against H9N2 and H5N1 AIV subtypes by integrating reverse genetics-based antigen optimization with appropriate inactivation methods, thereby presenting a flexible vaccine development strategy applicable to various AIV subtypes. Notably, the marked improvement in vaccine productivity and the expansion of immune responses significantly enhanced both economic feasibility and field applicability. Furthermore, this study underscores the importance of NA-specific and mucosal immunity beyond conventional HA-focused approaches, highlighting the need for broader and more comprehensive protective strategies. Moreover, the proposed strategy offers a practical approach for rapidly responding to continuously evolving and co-circulating AIV variants and is expected to contribute to the prevention of zoonotic transmission and the long-term sustainability of the poultry industry.