The Public Officials’ Asset Disclosure System in South Korea aims to prevent illicit accumulation of wealth and ensure transparency in the process of asset formation by requiring public officials to register and disclose their assets(Public Service ...
The Public Officials’ Asset Disclosure System in South Korea aims to prevent illicit accumulation of wealth and ensure transparency in the process of asset formation by requiring public officials to register and disclose their assets(Public Service Ethics Act). This system is recognized as a core policy instrument for institutionalizing public service ethics, strengthening public accountability, and preventing public sector corruption.
However, even after more than 30 years since its implementation, persistent issues such as underreporting, false reporting, and non-compliance with regulations continue to arise. Repeated criticisms have been raised that disclosure processes remain mere formalities. The 2021 LH housing scandal exemplified these shortcomings, fueling widespread public skepticism about whether asset disclosures genuinely serve their intended purpose. Furthermore, while questions have been raised regarding the accuracy of public officials’ asset reports, empirical analyses on the accuracy of asset information remain insufficient. Building on this awareness, this study conducts an empirical examination of how the asset disclosure system has actually operated in practice, focusing on the discrepancy between the system’s normative objectives and its actual operation.
Against this backdrop, the present study centers on the question of how the Asset Disclosure System has functioned in practice, empirically examining its operational mechanisms and effectiveness. Moving beyond the mere existence of the system or its normative justification, this research focuses on diagnosing the gap between normative expectations and actual implementation by analyzing how institutional control mechanisms influence reporting behaviors during the operational process. In particular, this study highlights the ‘accuracy’ of asset disclosures, distinguishing between underreporting (potentially strategic concealment) and non-compliance with regulations (unintentional errors), thereby providing a nuanced assessment of the system’s control effects.
To examine these mechanisms, the study analyzes whether inaccuracies in asset reporting—either in the form of misstatements or violations—are reduced through stronger institutional controls. In addition to measuring underreporting and regulatory non-compliance, we assess whether serious violations such as fines or disciplinary actions occur less frequently in the presence of stronger monitoring and disclosure mechanisms. In doing so, the study aims to test the functional relationship between institutional design and behavioral outcomes among public officials.
The empirical strategy involves a two units of analysis. At the organizational level, this study aims to capture collective factors often overlooked by individual-centered approaches, such as organizational culture, peer effects, and institutional enforcement structures. Specifically, this research explores how institutional arrangements—such as full audits (mandatory monitoring) and the breadth of disclosure (number of officials publicly disclosing assets)—influence the quality of asset reporting. Using a panel dataset from 2015 to 2023 encompassing central government ministries and public institutions overseen by the Public Officials Ethics Committee, this study employs fixed-effects, random-effects, two-way fixed-effects, and mixed-effects models to isolate the effect of institutional variables on reporting behavior.
The primary data sources for the analysis include land appraisal values crawled from the Publicly Announced Land Price portal, asset declaration records provided by Newstapa, institutional staffing data, and supplementary information on legislators’ electoral experience and tenure. The units of analysis are government agencies under the jurisdiction of the Public Officials Ethics Committee, which is responsible for auditing and administering the asset disclosure system. To enable a more precise assessment of the system’s effectiveness, the study incorporates the multidimensionality of reporting discrepancies into its design. Specifically, reporting discrepancies are classified into: inaccurate reporting (aggregate errors), underreporting (strategic concealment), and regulatory non-compliance (procedural errors or evasion of oversight). This typology allows for an examination of how institutional mechanisms affect different forms of reporting behavior.
Recognizing the characteristics of each unit of analysis, the institutional-level models employ all three types of reporting behavior as dependent variables, whereas the individual-level analysis of National Assembly members focuses only on underreporting and inaccurate reporting due to the negligible incidence of regulatory non-compliance. Institutional auditing is operationalized as the intensity of review, measured by whether a full-scale investigation was conducted, while institutional transparency is proxied by the level of disclosure, measured by the number of individuals subject to public reporting in each agency. Drawing on these operational definitions, the study applies panel regression techniques—including fixed-effects, random-effects, two-way fixed-effects, and mixed-effects models—to evaluate, by reporting type, the impact of auditing and disclosure mechanisms within the Public Officials’ Asset Disclosure System on public officials’ reporting behavior.
The empirical analysis reveals that agencies subject to comprehensive audits exhibit a statistically significant reduction in the incidence of inaccurate reporting, underreporting, and regulatory non-compliance. These findings support the argument that rigorous preemptive monitoring suppresses both intentional evasion and unintentional error. Interestingly, a larger number of disclosure subjects within an agency does not enhance the accuracy of asset reporting; rather, it is associated with increased underreporting. This outcome indicates that institutions with a larger number of disclosing officials do not necessarily show improved accuracy; in some cases, strategic underreporting increases. This suggests that public disclosure—while often presumed to enhance transparency—can produce paradoxical incentives, such as reputational self-protection through asset minimization. These results highlight the complex implications of external controls, demonstrating that increased transparency through disclosure does not necessarily translate into improved reporting accuracy or enhanced transparency.
Regarding actual violations, the analysis of the proportion of identified infractions shows that comprehensive audits may initially increase the number of detected violations through strengthened monitoring. However, over time, the accumulation of administrative sanctions—such as fines, correction orders, and supplementary measures—leads to gradual improvements in the accuracy and compliance of public officials’ disclosures. Notably, the negative coefficient observed in the two-way fixed effects model indicates that the overall effect of the system is to prevent regulatory violations and reduce the potential for corruption.
At the individual level, the analysis focuses on the National Assembly, which is not subject to comprehensive audits, to examine how repeated exposure to the asset disclosure and monitoring system influences reporting behavior. The analysis focuses on members of the 20th and 21st National Assembly (2015–2022), utilizing two key variables as proxies for institutional experience: the number of re-elections and total years in office. Two variables are used as proxies for institutional experience: the number of reelections (capturing electoral and media scrutiny) and total years in office (capturing administrative familiarity with the reporting system). While reelection frequency appears to improve accuracy through heightened political accountability, longer tenure paradoxically correlates with increased underreporting, implying that over time, familiarity with institutional loopholes may breed strategic behavior.
Grounded in the empirical results, this study contributes to the theoretical discourse in the following ways. First, this study extends existing analytical frameworks for evaluating the effectiveness of anti-corruption and transparency regimes by shifting the focus from agenda setting and policy adoption to the implementation process. Previous research (Fisman, Schulz, & Vig, 2019; Szakonyi, 2023) has primarily examined whether asset disclosure systems are adopted and their observable political outcomes, such as reelection rates or electoral success. However, as prior studies have shown, the effectiveness of such systems is contingent upon their mode of operation and the context of enforcement (Bauhr & Grimes, 2014; Lindstedt & Naurin, 2010). Building on this insight, the present study evaluates the effectiveness of the asset disclosure regime at the implementation stage by analyzing how two key control mechanisms—information disclosure and auditing—influence asset declaration behavior and violations.
Second, while prior studies have identified the problem of inaccuracy in asset declarations—such as false reporting or underreporting (Singh, 2025; Fisman, Schulz, & Vig, 2019; Szakonyi, 2025, p. 403)—they have generally lacked a systematic typology and robust empirical verification. In contrast, this study differentiates reporting integrity into three distinct categories: inaccurate reporting (aggregate errors), underreporting (strategic concealment), and regulatory non-compliance (procedural errors). This typological approach underscores that the asset disclosure regime does not address a single, uniform form of rule violation, but rather a composite structure that requires differentiated responses to distinct behavioral patterns. By doing so, the study advances a more nuanced analytical framework for examining the effectiveness of disclosure systems.
Third, this study moves beyond the conventional view that public officials’ reporting errors stem solely from deficiencies in individual ethics, providing empirical evidence that institutional design and operational arrangements significantly influence reporting behavior. While earlier research has often framed corruption as a matter of personal moral failure and emphasized solutions aimed at improving individual ethics (Rose-Ackerman, 1999), the findings of this study demonstrate that variations in the structure and implementation of disclosure systems can produce systematic differences in the quality of asset declarations.
Fourth, from a methodological perspective, this study constructs a high-quality dataset by integrating verified asset declaration records with officially announced land price data. Data collected through OCR processing and web crawling were cross-checked against original PDF sources to ensure reliability and objectivity, thereby overcoming data limitations that have constrained previous research. This approach, based on actual asset information, enables the first empirical assessment of how auditing and disclosure mechanisms within the asset disclosure system influence reporting behavior. In doing so, the study provides robust empirical foundations for the design of long-term anti-corruption policies.
Despite its contributions, the study acknowledges certain limitations. First, the true value of undisclosed assets remains unobservable, which constrains the ability to directly measure evasion. Moreover, the analysis primarily focuses on central government agencies, thereby limiting the generalizability of the findings to local governments, as well as to legislative and judicial branches. Lastly, while panel regression provides robust insights into patterns over time, causal inferences regarding behavioral change are limited due to the non-experimental nature of the research design.
Nonetheless, by reframing the study of asset disclosure from a normative obligation to an empirical question of institutional performance, this research offers a theoretically grounded and policy-relevant evaluation of a core monitoring and disclosure mechanism in modern governance.