Transgender and gender diverse (TGD) populations are known to experience structural exclusion and inequality in health, yet there has been lack of foundation data and little knowledge on their sexual and reproductive health (SRH) in South Korea. This ...
Transgender and gender diverse (TGD) populations are known to experience structural exclusion and inequality in health, yet there has been lack of foundation data and little knowledge on their sexual and reproductive health (SRH) in South Korea. This study aimed to examine the SRH status and healthcare utilization behavior of TGD individuals in relation to personal and social characteristics, and to explore the patterns of structural exclusion within the sociopolitical context of South Korea.
This study analyzed complete survey data from 844 participants of the Korean Initiative for Transgender Health(KITE) Cohort Study (2022–2023), which recruited TGD individuals from eight transgender-affirming facilities in Seoul and Daejeon. Dependent variables included SRH service indicators such as cervix and breast cancer screening, sexually transmitted infections(STI)/Human immunodeficiency virus(HIV) testing, and HPV vaccination. Individual, interpersonal, institutional, and societal-level factors were included as independent variables. Key indicators were interpreted by comparing them with general population benchmarks or international guidelines.
Despite living in a metropolitan area, being relatively young, and having high levels of health literacy, the participants reported higher rates of alcohol use, smoking, diagnosed depression, and non-consensual sexual contact compared to the general population, while SRH care utilization remained low. Sexual orientation was diverse beyond heterosexuality (39.5%), with pansexual (18.4%) and bisexual (17.8%) identities notably common, especially among non-binary respondents. Transmen tended to have the most heteronormative sexual practice and had the lowest STI testing rates. Cervical cancer screening coverage within two years was 17.6% overall and 27.1% among those with a cervix, about 29% of the rate seen among general population women of similar age. Breast cancer screening uptake among eligible transwomen was only 23.5%. STI/HIV testing in the past year was only 20.7% even among sexually active individuals, with significantly higher rates observed among those with multiple and gender-diverse partners. HPV vaccination rates were 25.5% among those assigned female at birth and 15.9% among those assigned male at birth, reflecting the impact of gendered vaccine perception. However, uptake was higher among individuals who had undergone gender-affirming care and those covered by the National Immunization Program.
Overall, SRH care utilization was higher among those who had experienced unwanted sexual contact, those living in metropolitan areas with greater access to healthcare, and those with higher education. Depression diagnosis, income, and insurance type were not significant predictors. Across all care domains, misperceptions that cervical cancer and STIs are only relevant to those engaging in sex with men were associated with lower uptake, highlighting the limitations of heterosexual-centered public health messaging. Furthermore, because eligibility for national cancer screening is based on legal sex, transmen who have changed their legal gender but retain a cervix were found to be excluded from routine cervical cancer screening.
This study empirically demonstrates that the TGD population in South Korea has diverse sexual and reproductive health needs based on biology, identity, sexual orientation, practice, and transition status, and that these needs intersect with both individual-level and systemic factors to influence healthcare utilization, while gender binary bureaucratic systems and heteronormative prevention policies structurally undermine equity in healthcare access. To address these disparities, policy reform is needed to develop inclusive, anatomy- and behavior-based screening and vaccination guidelines, implement gender-neutral immunization strategies, and provide healthcare worker training in gender sensitivity. Additionally, national health surveys must incorporate questions on gender identity and sexual orientation to support population-level SRH monitoring. Ultimately, structural reform must shift away from demanding adaptation from minorities within gender-binary, heteronormative systems, and instead move toward inclusive, universal healthcare frameworks that uphold health equity for all.