Among the beads unearthed from Jinhan and Byeonhan burial sites, those made of glass, carnelian, and crystal appear as a distinct category of grave goods. On the whole, existing research has regarded these beads as mere ornaments imported from outside...
Among the beads unearthed from Jinhan and Byeonhan burial sites, those made of glass, carnelian, and crystal appear as a distinct category of grave goods. On the whole, existing research has regarded these beads as mere ornaments imported from outside the peninsula, paying little attention to their circulation and use after their arrival in Korea. In contrast, this dissertation interprets the burial patterns of such beads in Jinhan and Byeonhan as material expressions shaped by a cyclical interplay of multiple dimensions—individual and collective identities, processes of differentiation and homogenization, expressions of power, intergroup interaction, the formation of internal networks within the Jinhan and Byeonhan spheres, and channels of external exchange and distribution. Through this lens, this research investigates the social networks that emerged in Jinhan and Byeonhan and considers the broader historical implications of these relationships.
The period of initial appearance extends from the late 2nd century BCE to the early 2nd century CE, marking the introduction and broad dissemination of glass, carnelian, and crystal beads throughout the Jinhan and Byeonhan regions. In Phase I (late 2nd century BCE to early 1st century BCE), burial patterns involving beads reveal a clear distinction between the Geumho River–Gyeongju–Ulsan area and the Seongju–Jinyeong (Changwon) area. These differences are understood to reflect distribution routes, shaped by geographical factors such as river systems.
In Phase II (late 1st century BCE to early 1st century CE), a shared pattern of bead burials appears across the inland regions stretching from Daegu to Gyeongsan, Gyeongju, and Ulsan. This trend suggests the emergence of a regional network centered within the interior areas of the Jinhan and Byeonhan spheres. The pattern is particularly evident among the ruling elite, reflecting both internal hierarchical differentiation and processes of homogenization driven by interaction among elite groups.
In Phase III (late 1st to early 2nd century CE), beads appear in large quantities, and the chemical composition of the glass - predominantly Potash-I among potash glass types - indicates the existence of a standardise distribution network. Network visualization analysis confirms that the Jinhan and Byeonhan regions were closely interconnected, particularly through the circulation of purple-blue glass round beads(or annular beads, spherical beads, seed beads). The concentration of richly furnished burials and high-status sites in Gyeongju and Gimhae further points to a process of differentiation, through which these areas asserted their prominence in external exchanges. Over time, this development reflects a growing divergence from other groups.
The differentiation phase spans from the late 2nd to the late 4th century CE. During this period, beads that had previously spread throughout the Yeongnam region began to be interred in increasingly diverse regional patterns. In Phase IV (late 2nd to early 3rd century CE), clear regional differences in bead burial practices emerge. At the Yangdong-ri site in the Gimhae area, as in Phase III, large quantities of beads are concentrated in the highest- and high-ranking tombs. In contrast, in the Daegu–Gyeongsan–Gyeongju–Pohang–Ulsan region, a shared ritual pattern develops in which only small numbers of crystal beads are placed in elite burials. These divergent practices may be interpreted as follows: at Yangdong-ri, lavish bead burials functioned as a means of asserting distinction and displaying power, whereas in Gyeongju and its surrounding areas, the more restrained pattern reflects a process of homogenization, achieved through competitive emulation, symbolic entrainment, and the exchange of information among elite groups, as a strategy for securing collective identity or shared status.
Another notable feature of Phase IV is the appearance of sites where reddish-brown glass round beads were buried in significant quantities—most notably at the Jeongjang-ri site in Geochang and the Samdong-dong site in Changwon. This trend implies that the traditional routes and methods of bead importation, once established within the Jinhan and Byeonhan spheres, were gradually diversifying over time.
In Phase V (late 3rd to early 4th century CE), a clear distinction persists between sites where large quantities of beads were used in high-ranking burials and those where only minimal amounts of crystal beads were included. However, in the Daegu–Gyeongsan–Gyeongju–Pohang–Ulsan region, the practice of lavish bead burials re-emerges in the early 4th century.
At the same time, Greenish-Blue and reddish-brown glass round beads appear in burials in the northwestern part of the Yeongnam region, while reddish-brown glass and carnelian round beads are found in western Gyeongnam and the Changwon area. These burial practices, which diverge from those seen in the traditional Jinhan and Byeonhan spheres, suggest that groups may have used beads as a means of asserting distinct identities—and that the routes of bead importation had become increasingly diversified.
In Phase VI (late 4th century CE), burials in the Daegu–Gyeongsan–Gyeongju–Pohang–Ulsan region commonly contain purple-blue and greenish-blue glass round beads, while mineral-based beads appear in significantly smaller quantities. The consistent use of similar bead burial practices from Phase IV through Phase VI points to the presence of a strong connective network centered on Gyeongju and its surrounding areas. Within this cohesive network, however, there are notable exceptions, such as Tomb Ga-13 on Wolseong Road in Gyeongju, where beads were interred in large quantities. This indicates that although homogenization was taking place across the region, certain sites within the city itself continued to employ bead burials as a means of asserting distinction.
At the Daeseong-dong and Yangdong-ri sites in Gimhae, the tradition of burying large quantities of beads persists. These assemblages feature a diverse array of bead types, with faceted crystal beads and round beads standing out as particularly distinctive.
In the western Gyeongnam and Changwon regions, as in the previous phase, a high proportion of reddish-brown and black glass round beads is observed, with carnelian round beads most frequently recovered. This consistent pattern suggests that the burial practice combining reddish-brown and black glass round beads with carnelian round beads had become firmly established in these regions, functioning as a cohesive regional network.
As such, bead burials provide a valuable lens through which to examine the formation and reconfiguration of social networks in the Jinhan and Byeonhan regions. To date, the emergence of these polities has largely been interpreted through the lens of population movements from Gojoseon. However, the influx of glass beads reflects the active participation of various Yeongnam polities in long-distance international trade networks. This study finds that external exchange played a pivotal role in the differentiation of Han (韓) and its surrounding groups. In effect, the groups within Jinhan and Byeonhan came to recognize cultural boundaries and forge communal identities through their engagement in external trade.
The patterns of bead burials also shed light on internal responses and trajectories of growth. Most notably, the absorption and implementation of external elements—embodied by glass, carnelian, and crystal beads—were carried out under the leadership of groups in the Yeongnam region that consistently upheld their burial and ritual traditions.
The active inclusion of beads in burials reflects their contemporary value as treasured items, imported goods, and symbols of external contact—whether through trade, exchange, or negotiation. The widespread adoption of bead burial practices thus indicates that interaction with the outside world was recognized as a critical factor in the growth and development of Jinhan and Byeonhan. In this context, the placement of large quantities of beads in funerary settings signifies not only increased access to external networks, but also the ability to acquire and visibly display imported goods. Within Jinhan and Byeonhan’s internal social networks, the practice of lavish bead burials served as a mechanism of differentiation—distinguishing certain groups and asserting claims to superiority and power.
During the differentiation phase, Jinhan–Byeonhan social networks displayed regionally varied patterns in response to external pressures and negotiations. In Phase IV (late 2nd to early 3rd century CE), Guya-guk (Geumgwan Gaya) maintained its tradition of lavish bead burials, clearly setting itself apart from neighbouring groups—an aspect that aligns with its depiction as “Gauho (加優呼)” in the Records of the Three Kingdoms (Sanguozhi). Meanwhile, in the Daegu–Gyeongsan–Gyeongju–Pohang–Ulsan region, elite burials followed a shared ritual practice that involved placing only small quantities of crystal beads. This appears to have been a strategic response by Gyeongju and its surrounding areas to the weakening control of Han (韓) from 146 to 189 CE. In particular, the regional network centered on Saro-guk (Gyeongju) seems to have pursued the formation of a robust connective system by actively promoting similar burial rites across multiple regions.
In Phase V (late 3rd to early 4th century CE), the center of power within Geumgwan Gaya (Guya-guk) appears to have shifted from the Yangdong-ri site to the Daeseong-dong site, alongside the continued use of potash glass. This transition is interpreted as a result of the Posangpal-guk (浦上八國) War, during which the Yangdong-ri tomb-building group—previously the core force of Gujaguk (Geumgwan Gaya)—suffered significant losses, while the Daeseong-dong group rapidly ascended to central prominence. The Posangpal-guk War was a maritime conflict over control of external negotiation routes, and in its aftermath, groups in western Gyeongnam and the Changwon area were able to enter and participate in the Jinhan–Byeonhan social networks that operated through maritime channels.
In the Jinhan region, large-scale group-based negotiation—as described in the Book of Jin (Jinshu)—appears to have occurred, and this collective entity is understood to correspond to the regional network connecting Daegu, Gyeongsan, Gyeongju, Pohang, and Ulsan during Phase IV. From this phase onward, the network consistently shared the same bead burial practices, ultimately suggesting a structure centered on Saro-guk (Silla) as its core axis.
In Phase VI (late 4th century CE), Geumgwan Gaya consistently employed a burial practice that involved the inclusion of large quantities of beads, thereby setting itself apart from other groups. This strategy reflects the momentum and direction that Geumgwan Gaya pursued in its evolution into a fully developed political entity. In this context, Geumgwan Gaya (Guya-guk) can be understood as ‘a Port City State’—a model of ancient statehood that amassed resources and wielded power through trade, exchange, and negotiation by sea, while actively managing its own regional networks.
Within the Daegu–Gyeongsan–Gyeongju–Pohang–Ulsan network, a shared burial pattern centered on purple-blue and greenish-blue round beads is evident. However, in the urban center of Gyeongju, a more conspicuous practice emerges—characterized by the abundant inclusion of beads alongside gold ornaments. This pattern reflects a dual process: on one hand, a strong sense of homogenization with surrounding regions through shared bead practices; on the other, a deliberate strategy of differentiation that emphasizes the centrality and distinctiveness of Silla’s political core. These social dynamics, expressed through bead burial customs, may be seen as an early articulation of the statehood model envisioned by Saro-guk (Silla).
Finally, in the western Gyeongnam and Changwon regions, the network centered on reddish-brown and black glass round beads, along with carnelian round beads, continued to be maintained. This continuity provides evidence that, following the Posangpal-guk War, groups in this area not only actively participated in but also assumed leading roles in the operation of their own regional networks.