This study analyzes how the care regime in Jakarta, Indonesia, being reconfigured across multiple scales, taking wage-based domestic work as a case study. Domestic work is a subcategory of care labor, and the concept of a care regime concerns the inst...
This study analyzes how the care regime in Jakarta, Indonesia, being reconfigured across multiple scales, taking wage-based domestic work as a case study. Domestic work is a subcategory of care labor, and the concept of a care regime concerns the institutional and practical system formed as a result of key actors’ contestation and negotiation within the structures of informality and formalization. By integrating theoretical approaches from care geography and Indonesian area studies, this study’s aim is to critically expand the existing discussions about care labor.
As Indonesia’s political, economic, and sociocultural center, Jakarta is a region in which care labor supply and demand is highly concentrated. Processes of industrialization and urbanization have increased women’s socio-economic participation, with the result that much care work is now outsourced. Simultaneously, regional economic disparities within Indonesia continue to supply low-wage and informal care labor to Jakarta. As such, care labor in Jakarta is a complex phenomenon that is sustained by layered structural factors, making it an appropriate site for analyzing the reconfiguration of care regimes.
Existing research on care labor has focused primarily on its precarious nature, which is rooted in informality, and has argued that formalization is necessary as a normative solution to ensure decent work conditions. While these studies have helped to expose care labor’s structural shortcomings while also proposing alternatives, the binary framework of informality versus formalization often fails to capture the complexity and fluidity of actual care relations. This study offers a critical examination of such limitations and focuses on the perceptions and practices of the actors who navigate these boundaries, and on how their actions contribute to the multi-scalar reconfiguration of the care regime.
To this end, the study adopts the concepts of multi-spatial and multi-scalar analysis, which are grounded in the spatial approach and ethical concern of care geography. Care spaces are conceptualized as multi-spatial, with overlapping boundaries between the public and private domains. Furthermore, in acknowledgment of the fact that care practices are shaped by political, economic, and cultural conditions across various levels, this study applies a multi-scalar approach to analyze the structural conditions and power relations that shape care.
Conceptualization of the care regime facilitates analysis of the distribution of care and its responsibilities as well as the institutional and normative conditions under which these dynamics operate. By supplementing the spatial analysis of care geography with the care regime framework, this research aims to provide a more systematic and macro-level understanding of care relations and practices. For the purpose of this study, the care regime is defined as the process through which care labor’s (in)formality is continuously reconfigured by the perceptions and practices of actors operating within and across multiple scales.
The study also incorporates culturally significant concepts from Indonesian area studies to interpret care relations and practices. First, the traditional patron–client relationship is considered as a forerunner of child foster care, and its continued influence on Jakarta’s care regime is examined. Second, the cultural practice of Musyawarah, or consensus-based decision-making, is employed to understand the compromise-oriented behaviors of care actors and the negotiated reconfiguration of care arrangements.
Building on the theoretical discussion above, the study proposes an analytical framework that integrates key concepts from care geography and Indonesian area studies to examine the complexity and dynamics of care labor. This framework moves beyond the binary and state-centered approaches that dominate the existing literature to position care regimes as complex structures that are shaped by the interplay between informality, formalization, actor agency, and multi-scalar influences.
Four primary actors in Jakarta’s care regime are identified: domestic workers, employers, activist groups promoting formalization, and intermediary agencies. Domestic workers primarily comprise female migrants from non-metropolitan regions. Employers come form diverse socio-economic backgrounds, with female household members typically managing employment relations. Activists include both domestic workers who engage in advocacy and non-domestic worker elites with professional expertise. Intermediary agencies, which mediate between both parties’ needs and conditions, have recently assumed a more prominent role in Jakarta’s care regime.
The multi-scalar structure of Jakarta’s care regime is analyzed across three dimensions. First, the care space dimension centers on the employer’s home, which is conceptualized as a multi-spatial site at which the public and private domains intersect. Second, the regional–national dimension includes economic and social disparities across regions, Jakarta’s urban-industrial development, relevant care policies, and the influence of Musyawarah. Third, the transnational dimension examines Indonesia’s position in the global care chain as a major exporter of labor and how this affects domestic perceptions of care labor, institutionalization discourse, and labor mobility structures.
Accordingly, the key components of the care regime—care actors and multi-scalar dimensions—refer to the four main actors and three scales described above. This study aims to analyze the patterns and meanings of the reconfiguration of the care regime.
This study employs qualitative research methods to investigate and analyze the case. In-depth interviews were conducted to explore the perceptions and practices of key care actors, while participant observation enabled close and detailed examination of care labor on the ground. In addition, a review of relevant literature provided insight into the structural contexts of care labor at both regional and national levels, which were actively incorporated into the analysis.
This study examines the reconfiguration of Jakarta’s care regime through three distinct phases, identified along a temporal trajectory using the proposed analytical framework. The first phase is characterized by an initial care regime centered on informality, whereby care labor shaped by sociocultural expectations of intimacy and moral responsibility is administered in employers’ private households and maintained without institutional oversight, Jakarta’s political, economic, and social structures serve to legitimize and reproduce this informality. Consequently, instances of conflict and harm often arise between domestic workers and employers, placing care labor in a structurally precarious position. Meanwhile, these relationships may function as reciprocal arrangements in which mutual expectations are compromised and contractual intentions are fulfilled through trust and closeness.
During the second phase, the problems of informality are increasingly questioned as formalization demands begin to emerge in earnest. As the inequality and exploitation generated by the informal care regime became socially visible, social movements advocating for change gained momentum, and demands for the protection of domestic workers' rights were raised. A key manifestation of these efforts was the attempted enactment of the Domestic Workers’ Protection Bill. However, the initiative failed to materialize due to entrenched interests within the informal care regime and strong cultural and emotional resistance. This phase illustrates that informality in Jakarta is not simply the result of institutional absence but is also a product of strategic decisions made by various actors within a complex sociocultural context. It also reveals that the push for formalization was driven by rigid institutional strategies rooted in international discourses, without fully accounting for local dynamics.
The third phase is characterized by a compromised reconfiguration between informality and formalization as formalization movements began to accept certain functions and normative aspects of existing informal structures and gradually adjusted the direction and methods of institutionalization with greater flexibility. Changes in Jakarta’s urban landscape and the expansion of global care labor migration weakened care arrangements based on personal relationships, contributing to a growing public recognition of the public value of care labor and the need for institutional frameworks. This created the conditions necessary to allow formalization in Jakarta’s care regime to proceed through more gradual and adaptive rather than rigid and linear pathways. In this transitional process, domestic workers have actively engaged in pragmatic and strategic practices to improve their conditions, even within existing constraints.
This reconfiguration shows that Jakarta’s care regime is not a fixed binary between informality and formalization but a complex and dynamic structure that is continuously reconfigured through the practices of diverse actors and interactions across multiple scales. The study reveals that informal care regimes are not merely sources of precarity but can also serve as foundations for reciprocity and flexibility. Meanwhile, it also demonstrates that formalization, which can involve new forms of precarity, is not the only viable alternative. These findings call for a move beyond the normative and linear approaches that dominate the existing research on care labor toward the adoption of more flexible and multi-layered analytical frameworks that support a more holistic understanding of care relations.
This study proposes a theoretical and practical alternative to rigid, dichotomous frameworks by integrating care geography’s ethical orientation with the multi-scalar perspective of Indonesian area studies. While previous research often viewed the formalization of care regimes as a normative end goal, this study, using Jakarta as a case study, shows that formal and informal care structures evolve through ongoing contestations and compromises across layered contexts, rather than in a linear progression. Efforts to mitigate informality’s precarity in Jakarta are accompanied by attempts to manage institutional disruption and social resistance triggered by gradual formalization. These dynamics point to what this study conceptualizes as a “compromised care regime”—a model emphasizing flexible coordination and compromise over abrupt institutional reform. It argues that adaptive governance may be more effective than singular policy tools in addressing care-related challenges. Accordingly, the compromised care regime offers an analytical framework that transcends the formality-informality binary.
The study’s findings also carry implications for South Korea, which is currently facing a care labor crisis amid demographic changes. In particular, as the country relies increasingly on migrant labor, the insights that this research generates can contribute to advancing and concretizing public discussions on the design and implementation of more context-sensitive care policies.