This study aimed to re-examine public service motivation (PSM) and establish its distinctiveness by investigating its conceptual clarity, measurement validity, and psychological underpinnings. Drawing on survey data from public sector employees in bot...
This study aimed to re-examine public service motivation (PSM) and establish its distinctiveness by investigating its conceptual clarity, measurement validity, and psychological underpinnings. Drawing on survey data from public sector employees in both the Republic of Korea and the United States, this study empirically examined the factor structure of PSM, its distinction from similar constructs, its psychological antecedents, and its associations with relevant behavioral outcomes.
Since it was first introduced in the early 1990s, PSM has become a core concept for explaining the motivation of public sector employees, with its theoretical and practical importance widely acknowledged in subsequent research. However, debates persist regarding the extent to which PSM can be clearly distinguished from similar constructs—such as prosocial motivation—and where its conceptual boundaries lie. This study posits that such ambiguity partly stems from shortcomings in the scale development process. Accordingly, this study re-examined PSM through a structured framework that includes the stages of ‘definition-operationalization-validation’ in scale development.
This study began by investigating the conceptual foundations of PSM through the lens of established theories of general work motivation and self-determination theory (SDT). In doing so, it situated PSM within broader motivational frameworks and applied self-determination theory to examine how an internalized orientation toward public values—rather than a focus on external rewards—emerges and persists in individuals. The stud posits that PSM aligns with the self-determination continuum, extending beyond the conventional divide between intrinsic and extrinsic motivation. Furthermore, it suggests that PSM can arise and be sustained when individuals’ fundamental psychological needs for autonomy, competence, and relatedness are adequately fulfilled.
Prior to conducting the main analysis, this study reviewed how PSM has been operationalized in both domestic and international research contexts. Through this review, several methodological concerns were identified: selective use of specific dimensions or items; the inclusion of preliminary items that had been excluded during the scale validation phase; imprecise terminology when employing panel datasets; confusion with similar concepts—such as using a prosocial motivation scale or treating organizational citizenship behavior as an additional dimension of PSM; flawed item wording; and unclear attribution of measurement sources.
By approaching PSM through the lens of scale development, this study identified notable limitations in prior studies—particularly in comparing PSM with similar constructs. To address this issue, the study focused on prosocial motivation and communal narcissism as similar constructs to PSM. It examined their theoretical distinctiveness and empirically verified the uniqueness of PSM using confirmatory factor analysis (CFA), the Fornell-Larcker criterion, and the Heterotrait-Monotrait (HTMT) ratio of correlations. The CFA results demonstrated that two five-factor models—one comprising the four subdimensions of PSM and prosocial motivations, and the other comprising four subdimensions of PSM and communal narcissism—showed relatively better fit, although not all fit indices reached conventional thresholds. When applying the Fornell–Larcker test, the evidence for discriminant validity between PSM and prosocial motivation was inconsistent, with several criteria unmet across countries and subdimensions. In contrast, the HTMT ratio—which is considered a stricter test for discriminant validity—consistently exceeded the acceptable threshold, providing stronger empirical support that PSM is distinguishable from conceptually similar constructs, and that its subcomponents are also theoretically separable.
To explore the factor structure of PSM, this study employed multiple measurement models, including a unidimensional, a multidimensional, a higher-order factor, and a bifactor model. Among these, the bifactor model, which captures both general and group factors, demonstrated the most favorable fit in both countries. While the multidimensional model showed better fit when correlations among subdimensions were allowed, the bifactor model revealed that a general factor accounted for a substantial portion of the variance, suggesting that PSM measurement items are better explained by a common general factor. Nevertheless, given the conceptual multidimensionality of PSM, the study conducted additional analyses comparing outcomes derived from selected combinations of items within each subdimension against those using the full original scale. Results indicated that, in the Republic of Korea, a shortened version of the scale could still capture the explanatory power of the full instrument, provided a sufficient number of items were retained. In contrast, the United States’ data showed more noticeable changes in results when the number of items was reduced, underscoring the importance of caution in attempts to abbreviate the scale across different cultural contexts.
This study further investigated the relationship between PSM and its psychological antecedents, focusing on the Big Five personality traits and moral identity. Findings from the analysis of the Big Five personality traits indicated that openness to experience had a consistent positive relationship with overall PSM in both the Republic of Korea and the United States. This suggests that individuals who are curious, imaginative, and open to new experiences are more inclined to pursue public values by engaging in the resolution of complex societal issues. Agreeableness also demonstrated a positive link with both overall PSM and its subdimensions across both national contexts, reinforcing the idea that cooperative and empathetic tendencies are aligned with PSM. In contrast, the associations between PSM and the other personality traits varied by country. In the Republic of Korea, conscientiousness was significantly related to PSM and most of its subdimensions—excluding self-sacrifice—whereas this association was not evident in the United States. Extraversion was positively associated only to the dimension of attraction to policy making in the United States. Meanwhile, emotional instability (or neuroticism) exhibited a negative association with the same subdimension, but only in the Republic of Korea.
In examining moral identity, the study found that moral-self was positively associated with both overall PSM and its subdimensions in both the Republic of Korea and the United States, implying that PSM may be rooted in individuals’ self-concept. In contrast, moral integrity showed a significant positive association only in the Republic of Korea. This finding may reflect cultural tendencies in collectivist societies, where social norms and self-discipline are more strongly emphasized. Taken together, the findings on both the Big Five traits and moral identity indicate that while some psychological mechanisms underlying PSM are consistent across cultures, others differ depending on the cultural setting.
This study aimed to map the nomological network of PSM by empirically testing the theoretical propositions put forth by Schott et al. (2019) concerning its distinction from prosocial motivation. The findings indicated that in the Republic of Korea, PSM had broader explanatory power across social altruistic behavior, organizational citizenship behavior, and instant or interpersonal altruistic behavior, whereas prosocial motivation did not significantly relate to social altruistic behavior. In contrast, in the United States, both PSM and prosocial motivation were significantly associated with social altruistic behavior, with prosocial motivation exhibiting a more expansive explanatory scope. These cross-cultural differences suggest that while the two constructs may jointly inform prosocial tendencies, the extent and nature of their influence differ depending on cultural context.
This research is subject to several limitations. First, its analytical scope is confined to comparisons with constructs primarily derived from psychology and management fields, leaving out important concepts rooted in public administration—such as public service ethos and public values. Second, while the study critically evaluates existing measurement tools, it does not offer a newly constructed scale for assessing PSM. Third, the cross-sectional nature of the data restricts the ability to draw causal conclusions. Fourth, the exclusive use of self-reported responses raises the potential for social desirability bias. Lastly, organizational-level variables—including leadership styles, institutional culture, and compensation structures—were not incorporated into the analysis.
Notwithstanding these limitations, this study enhances the existing body of knowledge by offering greater conceptual clarity, improved measurement validity, and a deeper psychological understanding of PSM. Future research that builds upon these findings—while also addressing the current study’s constraints—has the potential to further refine theoretical frameworks and strengthen empirical approaches in the literature on PSM.